1
                                      Introduction
This study sets out to analyse and present the formal qualities of the novels of Erich
Maria Remarque. The aim is to show that these works cannot justifiably be classified as
lowbrow literature or Trivialliteratur, as has often been done. Particular attention will
be paid to the narrative perspective, although other aspects of the form ? structural and
textural ? will likewise be incorporated in the examination. The analysis will form the
basis for the consideration as to whether Remarque?s narrative techniques remain
relatively unvarying throughout the novels ? does the author adhere to an Erfolgsrezept?
? or whether they are characterized by development. For this purpose the novels will be
presented in chronological order, with each thesis-chapter covering one or two of
Remarque?s books. The decision as to which novels should be treated together rests on
similarity in content and form to the extent this is possible whilst still preserving the
original sequence of the novels. The thoughts behind the division points will be
elaborated upon in the individual chapters.
Due to his unprecedented commercial success with Im Westen nichts
Neues,
1 
Remarque has remained almost entirely associated with this particular work.
However, over five decades, he authored a total of fourteen novels, several essays, plays
and more than three hundred and fifty short stories and poems. Following his success
with Im Westen, however, Remarque dedicated himself almost exclusively to the novel
form. Thomas F. Schneider perceives Remarque?s oeuvre as consisting of two parts. Im
Westen constitutes the dividing point. The part written prior to Remarque?s
breakthrough with Im Westen in 1929 and which has remained largely unknown to the
2
wider readership, Schneider refers to as the Fr?hwerk. The other half, that is, from Im
Westen and onwards, Schneider calls the Hauptwerk, the Sp?twerk or das eigentliche
Werk.
2
 In compliance with Schneider?s definitions, this study will apply the terms
Fr?hwerk and Sp?twerk. It should be noted, however, that for the sake of clarification
and due to the lack of a more suitable expression, the word Hauptwerk will be used as
signifying solely the eleven novels from Im Westen and onwards which earned
Remarque his fame and on the basis of which his authorial skills have largely been
judged.
  Remarque was born in the German town of Osnabr?ck 22 June 1898 and was named
Erich Paul Remark. As a child, he attended first the Domschule and later the
Johannisschule, both situated in Osnabr?ck. Remarque?s lower middle-class
background eliminated the possibility of obtaining private education, but his completion
of the three year Catholic Pr?parande in 1915 allowed him to enter the Catholic
teaching training seminary in Osnabr?ck. However, a year into the course, in 1916,
Remarque was conscripted for the army. The preliminary military training took place at
the Caprivi barracks in Westerberg near Osnabr?ck, and later Remarque attended Celle
training camp on the L?neburg Heath. In mid-June 1917, Remarque was sent to
Flanders on the Western Front where he was assigned to sapper duty. Approximately
six weeks after his arrival at the front, on 31 July 1917, Remarque was wounded. After
three weeks in an army hospital in Thorhut, he was transferred to St. Vinzenz Hospital
in Duisburg where he remained until the end of October 1918. He did not return to the
front, but spent the last days of the war in a reserve regiment in Osnabr?ck.
  A letter composed by the hospitalized Remarque in the autumn 1917 and addressed to
his friend on the front, Georg Middendorf, suggests that the former was working on a
war novel. ?Schreib sich doch mal vom Leben, wie sich ist jetzt. Hat sich gro?es
3
Interesse, weil sich schreibt Roman.?
3
 Remarque additionally gathered information
about the front experience by questioning fellow patients in the hospital. However, the
war novel did not materialize until a decade later in the form of Im Westen. In the
hospital episode of this work, an array of possible war injuries is described. The narrator
concludes that ?[e]rst das Lazarett zeigt, was der Krieg ist? (Im Westen, p. 177). The
statement suggests that the injuries and individual war accounts Remarque came across
at St. Vinzenz contributed to his turn to pacifism. There are, for instance, no moral
doubts to detect about the paramilitary Jugendwehr in the short prose text, Von den
Freuden und M?hen der Jugendwehr, which Remarque produced only months before
being conscripted in 1916.
4
 Rather, the short account portrays the organization?s
militaristic activities with a tone of excitement and as an adventurous game. The tone
contrasts sharply with that of Im Westen and the novels thereafter, which suggests that
Remarque?s anti-war viewpoint developed as a result of his participation in the Great
War and particularly his witnessing of individual victims. The focus of individual
suffering against a background of major political occurrences indeed came to
characterize most of Remarque?s novels.
  The first of the three novels contained in the Fr?hwerk, Die Traumbude (1920),
5
 was
intended as a literary celebration of one of Osnabr?ck?s artists, Fritz H?rstemeier,
around whom a small circle of local youths with an interest in art and a fascination for
H?rstemeier?s personality had formed. Remarque was part of this crowd and his
profound sense of loss when H?rstemeier died prematurely in March 1918 can be read
from his personal diaries of that year.
6
 Die Traumbude incorporates a number of
H?rstemeier?s poems which, combined with the overly precious expressions of
Remarque?s narrative, give the novel an atmosphere of decadence. Die Traumbude has
therefore, justifiably, been rejected as Remarque?s ?Jugends?nde?,
7
 and been said to
4
?[try] the patience of even the most willing reader?.
8
 Only few critics have subsequently
paid this work any attention.
9
  After the war Remarque completed his teaching training and, in the period from
August 1919 to November 1920, was employed as a substitute teacher in three different
schools. He thereafter left the teaching profession and, for a short period of time, had
miscellaneous jobs in Osnabr?ck. These included, for instance, employment as a sales
assistant in a stone masonry, and playing the organ in a psychiatric institution; both
experiences are echoed in the later novel, Der schwarze Obelisk. More importantly,
during this period, Remarque also began to write as a means of making a living.
Employed by the Osnabr?cker Tageblatt and the Osnabr?cker Landeszeitung, he
functioned as a theatre and concert critic, but he was also successful in getting his own
work ? poems and short pieces of prose ? published in a number of newspapers and
magazines.
  In 1922, Remarque moved to Hanover to work as a copywriter and editor at the Echo
Continental, the magazine of the rubber manufacturer and tyre company Continental. In
his spare time, Remarque worked on his second novel, Gam, which would remain
unpublished until 1998. A short story by Remarque, Steppengewitter, which is lifted
more or less directly from Gam, did, however, appear in the Munich magazine Jugend
in July 1924.
10
 Although Remarque never completed Gam, the novel fragment reflects ?
in parts ? the succinct, journalistic style which later came to characterize the
Hauptwerk. Whilst employed in Hanover, Remarque?s continued composing of short,
sharp essays and short stories for the Echo Continental clearly contributed to the
author?s immense but positive stylistic leap from Die Traumbude to Gam. As a matter
of fact, many elements of Gam reappear later in Remarque?s oeuvre.
11
 The names of
Clerfayt and Ravic constitute two such examples,
12
 but also the overall theme of Gam?s
5
self-exploration and search for life is found later in the Hauptwerk. There is, for
instance, a striking similarity between Gam and the protagonist, Lillian, in Der Himmel
kennt keine G?nstlinge.
In December 1924, Remarque moved to Berlin to fill the post as editor for the
Hugenberg publication, Sport im Bild: Das Blatt f?r die gute Gesellschaft. Whilst living
in the capital, Remarque wrote his next novel, Station am Horizont.
13
 The work was
serialized in Sport im Bild during the winter 1927/ 28, but despite being relatively
successful, Station am Horizont was not published in book form until 1998. As in the
earlier short story, Das Rennen Vanderveldes,
14
 which Remarque had produced in 1924,
the plot of Station am Horizont revolves around car-racing.
15
 Remarque resumes this
theme several times during the Hauptwerk. It forms the basis for the film treatment The
Other Love which was turned into a film and released under the same title in 1947,
16
and it is also at the centre of the novel Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge from 1961.
The car theme is only one of many recurring elements which are found throughout
Remarque?s oeuvre and which, at times, connect the seemingly most unrelated works.
17
  Remarque was prolific as a writer throughout the 1920s, and many of his essays,
poems and short stories were published in various newspapers and magazines
throughout Germany. Station am Horizont had appeared in Sport im Bild, which could
boast of having featured writers such as Robert Walser, Axel Eggebrecht, Carl
Zuckmayer, Robert Musil and even Bertolt Brecht. Despite the opposite claim from
Ullstein Publishing House, Remarque had therefore become part of the Weimar ?Cr?me
der Literaturszene? even prior to the origin of Im Westen.
18
  In its advertising campaign for Im Westen, Ullstein introduced Remarque as a debut
author, whose psychological struggle to come to terms with his experiences on the
Western Front had resulted in the writing of a war novel.
19
 Neither the jet-set life style
6
of the characters in Station am Horizont, nor the long-winded philosophizing in Die
Traumbude, was compatible with this picture of Remarque as a war-traumatized man.
This perhaps explains why Ullstein attempted to obtain and destroy remaining copies of
Die Traumbude,
20
 and why Station am Horizont was not published in book form in the
wake of the success of Im Westen.
  After being published, first in serial form in the Vossische Zeitung in November and
December 1928 and then in book form in early 1929, Im Westen immediately became a
bestseller; it has even been professed to be the most frequently printed book, following
the Bible.
21
 Translations exist in more than fifty languages and the work has sold over
twenty million copies worldwide.
22
 The novel?s initial, commercial success was first
and foremost the result of Remarque?s presentation of the ?lost generation? as
experienced through the eyes of a young foot soldier. Even a decade after the end of the
Great War, many former soldiers still struggled to process their war experiences.
However, in response to his novel, Remarque received many letters from war veterans
who claimed that Im Westen had helped them digest the past and move forward. It
seems Remarque managed to express in words the emotions experienced by the former
soldiers but which they could not themselves verbalize.
23
  Other major pacifist novels existed alongside Im Westen. The most obvious examples
are Arnold Zweig?s Der Streit um den Sergeanten Grischa, Ludwig Renn?s Krieg and
Edlef K?ppen?s Heeresbericht, but no other works attracted the same level of attention
as Im Westen. This was partly due to Ullstein?s intensive advertising campaign
(although Krieg was also well-promoted), partly because the novel focused on the
psychological impact of war. Moreover, the vague references to time and location in Im
Westen made B?umer?s narrative applicable to any war, anywhere, at any time. The
narrative thereby achieved an air of continued and universal relevance.
7
Remarque?s naturalistic presentation of the war and his employment of a first-person
narrator led to the widespread, although erroneous, assumption that Im Westen was
autobiographical. The popularity during the early war years of authentic accounts and
diaries from the battle front presumably also contributed to this misinterpretation of Im
Westen.  The war diaries and reports had given precedence to authenticity rather than
aesthetics and even though the appeal of this genre had faded by the time Im Westen
appeared, its journalistic form caused some confusion. The novel was even criticized for
its vague information on time and place names, despite the fact that this characteristic
had also dominated the original, supposedly non-fictional diaries.
24
 The
autobiographical interpretation of Im Westen nonetheless seems illogical, given
B?umer?s death at the end of the novel. This event is a weighty indicator that Remarque
and his protagonist cannot possibly be identical.
25
  The extent of the publicity and fame Im Westen achieved was to a certain degree the
result of the time at which it appeared.
26
 Emerging at a time when Germany was still
attempting to determine its identity following its defeat in the war, Im Westen was met
by either strong support or just as fierce opposition depending on the reader?s stance to
the ? at the time ? unvanquished nationalistic mood and re-emerging militarism.
Another important factor contributing to the popularity of Im Westen was its form,
which made it approachable even to inexperienced readers. Peter D?rp comments on
this aspect of the novel?s appeal: ?Remarque hatte es verstanden, mit Hilfe raffinierter
erz?hltechnischer Mittel beim Leser weniger an den Verstand zu appellieren als
vielmehr, wie Goebbels es formulierte, an das ?Herz??.
27
 Remarque thus targeted a
wider audience than for instance Arnold Zweig in Der Streit um den Sergeanten
Grischa or Junge Frau von 1914, which both contain far more complex sentence
structures and a broader vocabulary than Im Westen. Unfortunately, the seemingly
8
simplistic form of Im Westen became ammunition for those who resented Remarque
because of his fame or his political stance. Landshoff?s statement on the nature of
German literary criticism offers an explanation as to why the form of Remarque?s work
was used as an argument for dismissing his literature as inferior: ?Es besteht zu oft die
Neigung, die literarische Qualit?t eines erfolgreichen Autors zu untersch?tzen und die
Erfolglosigkeit eines Werkes bereits als Zeichen des literarischen Wertes zu
beurteilen?.
28
 Wagener voices a similar observation and contrasts German and American
literary criticism:
Es ist meines Erachtens kein Zufall, da? ein Gutteil der
kritischen Auseinandersetzung mit Remarques Werk
bisher von der amerikanischen Germanistik geleistet
wurde. Der Grund daf?r ist nicht nur im Thematischen zu
finden, sondern meines Erachtens in einem anderen
Kultur- und Literaturverst?ndnis, in einer anderen
Erwartungshaltung der Literatur gegen?ber. Kultur ist in
Deutschland traditionell etwas Hohes, etwas Hehres,
wovor man Ehrfurcht hat. [...] Ein Buch der sogenannten
hohen Literatur mu? in Deutschland philosophische Tiefe
haben ? in Amerika kann und soll Literatur zwar
gedankenreich sein, mu? gleichzeitig aber auch
Unterhaltungswert besitzen.
29
  Paradoxically, it can be argued that less striking sales figures might have been
favourable to Remarque?s literary reputation as he might have been looked upon with
more benign eyes both by other major authors as well as by scholars.
  The next two novels, Der Weg zur?ck and Drei Kameraden,
30
 both explore the post-
war period. Similarly to Im Westen, Der Weg was serialized in the Vossische Zeitung,
and in the spring of 1931 it became available in book form. However, the pacifist
message of the novels was not compatible with the National Socialist ideology, and Im
Westen and Der Weg were therefore amongst the books blacklisted and burned 10 May
1933 on the Opernplatz of Berlin.
9
  Remarque did not experience the book burning. He had moved to Switzerland in April
1932, and had acquired a villa, Casa Monte Tabor, in Porto Ronco. Here he wrote
Kameraden, which he dedicated to his then wife, Ilse Jutta Zambona, whom he had
married whilst living in Berlin. As Remarque's novels were banned in Germany,
Kameraden was translated and released in a number of other countries in 1936/ 37
before it was published in its original language the following year by the exile
publishing house, Querido, in Amsterdam. The novel only became available in
Germany in 1951. Although Remarque would return to the Weimar period in the later
novel, Der schwarze Obelisk, Kameraden brought an initial end to the First World War
as a theme for Remarque's novels.
  In 1939, as it became increasingly unsafe to remain in Europe, Remarque emigrated to
the USA. The previous year Remarque's German citizenship had been annulled,
31
 but
despite his stateless status, which lasted until 1947 when Remarque obtained American
citizenship, his international fame enabled him to retain his previous, comfortable
lifestyle. The novels Remarque wrote during this period, Liebe Deinen N?chsten and
Arc de Triomphe,
32
 however, focus on that larger proportion of exiles of National
Socialism who were less privileged.
  Both novels were received positively in the English speaking world. Liebe Deinen
N?chsten was, for instance, nominated ?book of the week? in late April 1941 in the
Philadelphia Inquirer,
33
 and Arc de Triomphe became Remarque's second bestseller
with high sales figures particularly in America.
  Similarly to Kameraden, neither Liebe Deinen N?chsten nor Arc de Triomphe was
published in Germany until the early 1950s. German versions had, however, been
available abroad, as Liebe Deinen N?chsten was published by Bermann Fischer in
Sweden in 1941 and Arc de Triomphe by the Swiss publisher F. G. Micha in 1946.
10
Liebe Deinen N?chsten was the last of Remarque's previously banned novels to be
brought out in Germany. This did not occur until 1953. Its reception by German
reviewers was modest; not least because Remarque's controversial concentration camp
novel, Der Funke Leben,
34
 had appeared only the year previously, and the heated debate
which followed in its wake undoubtedly had a negative impact also on the reception of
Liebe Deinen N?chsten.
  Remarque began working on Funke Leben in 1946, and it took him five years to
complete the novel. As Remarque had spent the war years in America, he had not
personally witnessed or experienced concentration camp imprisonment, and he therefore
consulted reports; witness accounts; interviews and photos to acquire the knowledge
necessary to write such a novel. Remarque wanted to explore ?wie Menschen andere
Menschen so zu qu?len im stande waren, ohne es als Unrecht zu empfinden?.
35
However, Remarque also had personal grounds for writing this novel, as one of his
sisters, Elfriede Scholz, had been executed for ?Wehrkraftzersetzung? in 1943.
A contract regarding Funke Leben had been signed with the leading Swiss publishing
house, Alfred Scherz, before the work was even complete, but as Scherz received the
final product in 1951, they rejected the novel arguing that its contents were too
controversial and would result not only in a boycott of Remarque's novels in general,
but possibly of all Scherz publications.
36
 The German publisher Desch likewise
recoiled.
37
 Kiepenheuer und Witsch, however, agreed to publish the novel despite the
outcry it was expected to cause, and though neither Remarque?s novels nor the
publishing house was boycotted, the sales figures were low. Reviews were mostly
negative and often questioned the credibility of the novel?s content by pointing to
Remarque's Nicht-dabei-gewesen-sein. There were however also complimentary
reviews which predominantly commented on the author?s courage for treating the
11
Holocaust topic.
38
 The accusation of being a Nestbeschmutzer, a claim which had
adhered to Remarque since the writing of Im Westen,
39
 did not deter Remarque from
writing yet another novel set in Germany under the Second World War. Remarque
dedicated the work, Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben to ?P. G.?, Paulette Goddard,
whom he later married.
40
 Although the issues dealt with in Zeit zu leben ? the crimes of
the Wehrmacht and the collective guilt of the German nation ? were perceived
controversial at the time, it was not the topics which attracted most attention, but rather
the fact that the German version had been subjected to censorship. The novel was
published by Kiepenheuer und Witsch in September 1954, but only a month later the
Danish newspaper, Information, reported of the discovery of differences between the
Danish translation and the supposedly original version published in Germany.
Gyldendal, the publishing house of the Danish and Norwegian versions, confirmed that
its publications were based upon the manuscript Remarque had sent to his English
translator, Denver Lindley, in America.
41
  Kiepenheuer und Witsch insisted that Remarque had requested the publishing house?s
editorial assistance and that he had consented to their suggestions. The purpose of
editing the work was, according to the publisher, to make the novel ?zeitgerecht? in
respect to ?die technischen Details (Fragen des Milieus, der Terminologie und andere
mehr zum ?u?eren Kleid des Romans geh?rende Dinge)?.
42
 However, Die Welt
suspected a different motive. It noted: ?[g]estrichen wurde, was die Unverbesserlichen
und Unbelehrbaren ?rgern k?nnte?.
43
 The Danish paper, Information, examined the
differences between the two versions and concluded that statements portraying the
German soldier in a perceived dishonerable light had been omitted.
44
 In his diaries,
Remarque claims that he accepted the changes only ?mit schweigendem Disgust?,
45
 and
he may indeed have felt pressurized to work with the publisher in order to get published
12
for the German market. Remarque had, in fact, supposedly requested that the Danish
translation should be based on the original manuscript rather than on the published
German version. This further supports the view that the author was unhappy about the
censorship Zeit zu leben had been subjected to in his home country.
46
 The alterations
undertaken were of a kind that changed the message of the German publication
decidedly from that of the foreign language versions. In the original manuscript, for
instance, Graeber expresses the realization of both his own and the collective guilt:
??M?rder?, sagte er noch einmal und meinte Steinbrenner und sich selbst und unz?hlige
andere? (Zeit zu leben, p. 398). Although a key statement in the novel in as far as it
conveys Graeber?s first direct defiance of the Nazi regime, it was omitted from the
German version. Graeber?s killing of Steinbrenner is instead legitimized by referring to
it as ?Notwehr?. The novel?s impeaching quality was further softened by a number of
other alterations and omissions. References, for instance, to Steinbrenner?s past in the
SD and the SS as well as his activities in a concentration camp were erased, as was his
persecution of the quarter-Jewish character, Hirschland, who in the German version
appeared as Aryan and with the name Hirschmann. Understandably, Heini?s accounts of
the sadistic treatment of Russian prisoners were likewise taken out.
Given that the novel was brought out during the Cold War, it is perhaps not surprising
that in addition to the already stated amendments, Remarque's sympathetically depicted
Communist, Immermann, was given a political makeover and was transformed into a
Social Democrat. A similar argument might explain why (in the censored version) the
released Russian prisoners who shoot Graeber are explicitly said to be partisans. Not
only are the Russians portrayed as being dangerous and untrustworthy, the confirmation
of their identity as partisans also mitigates the harshness of an execution, carried out
early on in the novel, of a similar group of Russian suspects. Although the members of
13
this group look like innocent civilians (just like the Russians who eventually kill
Graeber) the suspicion arises that they too could have been partisans. Remarque's
uncensored version is devoid of such a connotation.
47
  The censored version of Zeit zu leben remained the only publication of this work in
German until 1989.
48
 It had, however, become impossible to trace a copy of Remarque's
original manuscript, and the censored sections were subsequently rewritten from foreign
translations. Based on Denver Lindley?s English translation, Thomas F. Schneider and
Angelika Howind undertook this task. Despite the fact that German readers since 1989
have had access to a version of Zeit zu leben, which conveys in close proximity the
message Remarque originally intended, it is nonetheless not Remarque?s exact work,
but a product in which some vocabulary and sentence structures might differ ? albeit to
only a small extent ? from Remarque?s original. Considering that parts of the text have
been translated twice ? first from Remarque's German original into English, and then
back again ? it is only to assume that at least stylistic differences, even if minor, have
appeared during the translation processes. Moreover, potential mistakes in the first
translation must naturally be incorporated also in the translation back into German.
Remarque himself was aware of this issue. ?Keine ?bersetzung aber kann dem
Originalmanuskript gerecht werden. Die Originalit?t jedes Schriftstellers beruht zum
gro?en Teil auf seiner Sprache. Rhythmus und Klang der Sprache sind die beiden
Dinge, die nicht ?bersetzt werden k?nnen?.
49
 He also accentuates the problems
revolving around translation in his humorous essay, Gr??ere und kleinere Ironien
meines Lebens. With regards to Im Westen, he explains: ??berall erschienen
Piratausgaben. In einer, in Indien, war durch ein Dutzend schlechte ?bersetzungen von
noch schlechteren ?bersetzungen zum Schlu? ein Eifersuchtsdrama zwischen einem
F?rster und einem Walddieb daraus geworden?.
50
 This may be an exaggeration, as
14
Remarque?s essay continues to embellish the legends surrounding his person. It
nevertheless highlights the question of accuracy in translations. In the example above,
Remarque claims that the plot had transformed entirely, but even in cases where the
overall content remains unaltered, misinterpretation of a single word or its possible
implications, might cause a slight deviation from the author?s originally intended
meaning.
51
  Zeit zu leben is not the only work by Remarque that no longer exists in its original
German form. In the early 1930s, Remarque produced a number of short stories for the
American magazine, Collier?s Weekly. These stories, which are set in the immediate
post-war period, are now available in the publication Der Feind.
52
 Whereas only parts
of Zeit zu leben are translated from English, Der Feind is entirely based on the English
version, since a German original has never been located. This is also the case with the
film synopsis Die andere Liebe, which came to form the basis for the film The Other
Love from 1946. 
  In his next novel, Der schwarze Obelisk: Geschichte einer versp?teten Jugend
(Obelisk)
53
 from 1956, Remarque returns to the past and again depicts the period of the
Weimar Republic. The work was, however, written and intended to be read with the
Second World War in hindsight. As in his previous works, Remarque?s message is one
of pacifism, and the novel was consequently highly topical when it appeared in the mid-
1950s, as the East-West tension intensified, and rearmament and development of ever
more destructive weapons were on the agenda. Despite its relevance, German critics did
not take kindly to Obelisk. This was not least a result of Remarque?s overt criticism at
the end of the novel of the widespread acquittal of German war criminals, a topic which
Remarque elaborated on in his essay, also from 1956, Seid wachsam! Zum Film ?Der
letzte Akt?.
54
15
  In 1959, Remarque was asked to write a novel for the Springer magazine, Kristall,
which at the time was in financial difficulties. It was hoped that the serialization of a
work by a prominent author would evoke interest and increase the magazine?s sales
figures. Johannes Mario Simmel, had originally been offered the contract but had
declined. The chief editor of the magazine, Pierre Pabst, visited Remarque who,
unimpressed with the initial fee offer, allegedly dragged his guest from one drinking
establishment to another until Pabst, intoxicated by large amounts of alcohol, wrote out
a cheque for a considerably higher sum than initially intended.
55
The work which Remarque delivered, Geborgtes Leben, was published in book form in
1961 under the revised titled Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge.
56
 This novel, like Zeit
zu leben, carries a dedication to ?Paulette Goddard?, but now with the additional name
?Remarque?. Thematically, Der Himmel differs from the rest of the Hauptwerk in that it
does not revolve directly around the topics of war, exile or Vergangenheitsbew?ltigung.
It nevertheless classifies as a typical Remarque novel, in as far as it examines the same
overall aspects as Remarque?s other works: life, death and victimization.
  Remarque's last two novels, Die Nacht von Lissabon
57
 and Schatten im Paradies
58 
can
be perceived as indirect sequences to the earlier exile novels, Liebe Deinen N?chsten
and Arc de Triomphe. Lissabon portrays the existence of refugees in the period from
1939-1942 as they seek to escape the European continent, and Schatten further explores
this issue in its depiction of the existence of those who manage to reach America.
Lissabon was published in 1962 and, in Germany, the reception was relatively positive,
a reflection of the fact that the nation had begun to acknowledge and process its
National Socialist past.
  The history revolving around the production of Remarque?s last novel, Schatten,
merits some attention. The inspiration for this work is thought to originate in a private
16
writing project which Remarque began in 1950 as a means of getting to terms with his
failed relationship with the Russian actress, Natascha Paley-Wilson. The project ? at the
outset labelled Das Buch N. ? had by 1967 developed into a manuscript which
Remarque intended to entitle New York Intermezzo or New York Story.
59
 However, as
typical of Remarque?s writing procedure, he rejected this novel draft and embarked
upon creating an entirely new version of it. This last manuscript, he named Das gelobte
Land.
  When Remarque died on 25 September 1970, the manuscript was still incomplete. On
20 April 1971, under much publicity, his widow, Paulette Goddard, nevertheless sold
the first version for publication at auction to the highest bidder. As a result the novel
was published by Droemer-Knaur as opposed to Kiepenheuer und Witsch who had been
Remarque's publishers since 1952, when they had first agreed to bring out Remarque's
controversial concentration camp novel.
  Remarque had worked on different sections of the novel simultaneously, but whereas
the early chapters had been revised several times, the concluding part existed only in
note form. The later chapters thus needed completion and amendments to succeed the
already revised chapters logically. Droemer-Knaur, Goddard and Remarque's former
agent, Felix Guggenheim, all claimed that the novel, published under the title Schatten
im Paradies, was Remarque's last version of two manuscripts. However, Marc Wilhelm
K?ster has shown that the published novel is, in fact, based on an earlier, and by
Remarque discarded, version.
60
 In addition, significant changes were made by the editor
at the publishing house. The length of the novel, for instance, was reduced by
approximately ten percent, a substantial reduction which in its nature resembled
censorship. The deleted passages consisted predominantly of political statements about
post-war Germany and satirical or negative allusions to American culture. One passage
17
was furthermore extracted from the main text and transformed into a prologue. Finally,
the title, ?Schatten im Paradies?, was not formulated by Remarque, but derived from an
English title, Shadows in Paradise, proposed by the American editor.
61
 Due to all these
alterations which Paulette Goddard authorized, despite the fact that she never mastered
the German language, it must be concluded that Schatten in its published form is not
entirely Remarque?s work. In 1998, Kiepenheuer und Witsch published the last,
although fragmented, version of the manuscript which Remarque had been working on
when he died, and which he had entitled Das gelobte Land. Many episodes of Schatten
and Das gelobte Land are relatively identical in their contents, although character names
differ considerably. A significant difference, however, is found in the conclusions of the
two works. In both versions the refugee narrator returns to Germany after the war, but is
disillusioned with the sentiments with which he is met. Whereas Schatten concludes at
this point, the notes at the end of Das gelobte Land suggest that Remarque was still
undecided whether to include the themes of revenge and suicide.
  As Schatten was not completed by Remarque nor submitted for publication by him, the
mainly negative reception which this work received cannot be blamed on Remarque or
justly be regarded as reflecting his ability as a writer. His authorial reputation should
therefore not beg defending through points of reference to this novel. In this
examination of Remarque?s narrative methods and the subsequent evaluation of his
merit as an author, there is therefore no full justification for taking Schatten into
account. It would be of equally little purpose to base an analysis on the final manuscript,
Das gelobte Land, as it remained fragmentary. Given Remarque?s tendency to rewrite
his manuscripts several times before eventually submitting the final version for
publication, Das gelobte Land would presumably have become subject to further
revision or perhaps even formed the basis for a third or even fourth manuscript, had
18
Remarque?s health allowed it. Comments on Schatten are therefore restricted to
occasional references for comparative purposes.
   In addition to the fourteen novels, Remarque wrote a large amount of short stories,
essays and reviews, and even ventured into different literary areas such as those of
poetry and cartoon strips. His experimentation with this variety of literary genres took
place mainly in the 1920s and was chiefly the result of his employment at the Echo
Continental and Sport im Bild. However, after his breakthrough with Im Westen, the
novel took precedence as Remarque's preferred literary medium. The short stories and
essays he did write parallel to the Hauptwerk concentrated on the same issues as his
novels: situations of crisis and their victims. In the early 1930s, Remarque produced the
six short stories which now constitute the publication Der Feind. These narratives
emerged from a contract with the American news agency United Press which bound
Remarque to deliver the mentioned short stories alongside the novel Der Weg. In 1930,
three of the six stories were printed in Collier?s Weekly. The remaining three followed
the year after, but they did not appear in book form (or in German) until 1993, when
Kiepenheuer und Witsch published them under the title of one of the short stories, Der
Feind. Another compilation, Ein militanter Pazifist, appeared in 1994. This book
contains essays and interviews of which a central theme ? as the title suggests ? is
Remarque?s pacifist standpoint. Two additional compilations, Das unbekannte Werk,
Band I-V and Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten followed in 1998 and 2001 respectively.
The latter contains a wide variety of short stories, essays and reviews, almost all of
which are also in volume four of Das unbekannte Werk. This five volume publication
was brought out in connection with Remarque's centenary in 1998. Volume one holds
the three early, and relatively unknown, novels: Die Traumbude, Gam and Station am
Horizont. The manuscript, Gelobte Land, which Remarque was working on when he
19
died, is contained in volume two. In the 1950s, Remarque had created a film script
based on Judge Michael A. Musmanno?s report, Ten Days to Die. This report portrays
the final phase of the Second World War as experienced from within Hitler?s
underground air-raid shelter in the vicinity of the Reichstag.
62
 Remarque?s draft of the
film script, Der letzte Akt and the play, Die letzte Station, comprise volume three of Das
unbekannte Werk.
63
 Volume four contains short stories, essays, poems and the cartoon
strip, Die Contibuben, to which Remarque delivered the text whilst working for Echo
Continental in Hanover. The fifth and final volume contains a selection of private
writings in the shape of Remarque?s written correspondence and his diaries.
64
Much material overlaps in the publications Der Feind, Ein militanter Pazifist,
Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten and Das unbekannte Werk, but apart from Der Feind,
each compilation also holds material which is excluded from all the others.
Although these publications allow us to explore a part of Remarque?s oeuvre which
has remained relatively unknown to the wider readership, it is questionable whether the
author would have welcomed their discovery. In a television interview conducted by
Friedrich Luft in 1965, for instance, Remarque expresses relief at the fact that his early
writings had seemingly been consigned to oblivion. Referring to the time before his
breakthrough, Remarque states: ?Davor habe ich ganz anders geschrieben, und zwar
ziemlich dumm. [?] Ich bin ganz froh, da? sie [the writings prior to Im Westen]
vergessen sind?.
65
  Viewed in isolation, the Fr?hwerk is indeed of little literary worth, aside from the fact
that it testifies to the learning process Remarque underwent during the 1920s.
66
Schneider states: ?Auch heute noch beginnt Remarques Werk f?r die breite
?ffentlichkeit mit Im Westen nichts Neues, dem Welterfolg, der quasi aus dem Nichts
kam. Wenn ?berhaupt, gab es davor ?Versuche?, die getrost zu vernachl?ssigen und
20
noch weniger Gegenstand ?ffentlichen oder gar wissenschaftlichen Interesses sind?.
67
The Fr?hwerk will therefore largely be excluded from this study, which instead will
focus on the ten novels from Im Westen to Lissabon. Parallels or contrasts to other
aspects of the oeuvre will, of course, still be highlighted where relevant. The Hauptwerk
has been selected as the subject for analysis on the basis of this study?s aim to refute
Remarque?s classification as an author of Trivialliteratur. This negative labelling
originates in the Hauptwerk alone, since all Remarque's other writings remained
relatively unknown and unavailable until Kiepenheuer und Witsch began to re-publish
them in the 1990s.
  Remarque's success with novels which appear to be formally relatively simple
certainly contributed to his work being spurned as ?Trivialliteratur, Unterhaltungsprose,
Kolportage, Kitsch gar?.
68
 However, there is indication that the form alone did not
instigate this, but that political and ideological opposition as well as envy within the
profession likewise contributed to the rejection of Remarque as an author of lowbrow
literature.
69
  With the release of Im Westen, Remarque rapidly gained fame as the novel?s sales
figures went through the roof. Major, German authors such as Thomas Mann and
Arnold Zweig subsequently exhibited hostility towards this professed debut author who,
in comparison to them both, had a much less complex authorial style. Traces of envy,
concealed behind expressions of contempt, can be found in letters and private journals
of some of Remarque's contemporaries. Thomas Mann, for instance, refers to Remarque
as ?minderwertig? on a number of occasions,
70
 and after the release of Im Westen,
Arnold Zweig allegedly called both this novel and Ludwig Renn?s Krieg ??gute?
Dilettanten-Romane?, ??gut? mit herablassender F?rbung?. Zweig even suggested:
?Remarque h?tte aus seinem Buch sogar einen gro?en Roman machen k?nnen?.
71
21
During the Second World War, Remarque again attracted envy. Whilst in exile, he was
able to maintain his previous, comfortable lifestyle, whereas many, internationally less
known, German authors in exile struggled to make a living. Bertolt Brecht belonged to
the latter category and, perhaps predictably, found Remarque's extravagant lifestyle
objectionable. He mentions Remarque in his private journal in which, after an encounter
at a social gathering, he sarcastically describes Remarque?s arrival at the party. The
latter is reportedly wearing a tuxedo and is accompanied by a Hollywood star. Brecht
notes: ?r [emarque] ist im smoking, sieht aus wie hans heinz ewers, und irgend etwas
fehlt mir an seinem gesicht, wahrscheinlich ein monokel?.
72
 A number of Remarque's
colleagues evidently found the degree of his fame as well as the privileges it brought
him unwarranted and, as the above comments suggest, negative and condescending
murmuring thus typically surrounded Remarque's name within the literary community.
  In German public discourse, Remarque and his novels were also much debated, and
the discussions were more often political than literary. This was not least because
Remarque, in Im Westen and also in many of his following novels, wrote on
controversial topics which provoked strong reactions. The widespread antipathy
towards the views conveyed in the novels was subsequently projected on to Remarque?s
authorial abilities, which were questioned or even discredited.
  The difference in response to Remarque?s novels in- and outside of Germany testifies
to the effect politics exercised on the reception. Im Westen and Der Weg were largely
greeted positively by American reviewers, whereas a considerable proportion of
German critics expressed open opposition. The difference presumably rests in fact that
Germany was directly engaged with the contents of these two works, whilst the
uninvolved Americans could assume a relatively objective stance and judge the books
on their literary merits rather than on their ideological message. A similar reception
22
pattern characterized other Remarque novels. Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben, which
treat the topic of the Second World War, also found an overall positive reception
abroad, whereas Germany exhibited hostility, despite the omissions and alterations
which had been made to the German editions, particularly to Zeit zu leben. The
reception of the individual novels will be incorporated in the following chapters. In the
novels of the Second World War, Remarque?s portrayal of the German people offended
many of his former fellow countrymen who wished to forget their own more or less
active role in the National Socialist regime. Recognizing themselves as the main target
of the author?s indignation, these people subsequently struggled to remain unbiased in
relation to Remarque's novels. Understandably, Remarque therefore received more
impartial ? and more positive ? criticism abroad.
Along with all the other former German citizens who had been disenfranchised during
the National Socialist period, Remarque's German citizenship was never revalidated (an
application was required in order to regain citizenship and Remarque refused to submit
one), but perhaps as a gesture, in the 1960s, the author was awarded both the M?ser-
Medaille from the city council of his hometown, Osnabr?ck, and the Gro?es
Verdienstkreuz from the West German government.  In addition, the Swiss
municipalities, Ronco and Ascona, declared Remarque an honorary citizen and he was
furthermore granted membership of the Deutschen Akademie f?r Sprache und Dichtung.
In 1968, a street in Osnabr?ck was named after Elfriede Scholz, and posthumously, in
1975, Remarque too had this honour as the Karlsring in Osnabr?ck was renamed the E.-
M.-Remarque-Ring.
73
 Finally in 1991, the Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenspreis was
created. In the memory of the author, this money-prize is awarded every second year for
literary, journalistic or scientific work related to the theme of ?innerer und ?u?erer
Frieden?.
74
23
  Negative vibrations have adhered to Remarque's name in Germany, which perhaps
explains why the author has remained known as an Unterhaltungsautor. Moreover, until
recently, Remarque?s work remained the subject for researchers predominantly outside
of Germany.
  However, attitudes have started to change, and particularly the last ten to fifteen years
have witnessed increased interest in Remarque?s novels, also amongst German
academics.
75
 Discourse on Remarque, his life and oeuvre has, for instance, been
encouraged through the publications of the Remarque Jahrb?cher and the - likewise
annual ? Krieg und Literatur.  Aside from these journals, other measures have been
taken to spread awareness of Remarque?s work. In 1989, for instance, the Erich Maria
Remarque-Archiv in Osnabr?ck was established. This archive, which in 1998 was
renamed Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenszentrum, comprises an array of materials
relating to Remarque. It has become the chief collection in the world and is an
invaluable information store for researchers of the author and his oeuvre. Many original
documents are, however, contained in the Fales Library at New York University to
which Paulette Goddard left Remarque?s entire estate. In addition, activities such as
lectures and exhibitions are arranged by the Remarque Gesellschaft Osnabr?ck which
was founded in 1986.
76
 It is also noteworthy that contemporary researchers are more
detached from the historical events Remarque focused on in his novels, and that this
undoubtedly has had an objectivizing and, for Remarque, positive, effect in relation to
the continued assessment of his novels. Nevertheless, prejudices still dominate the view
on Remarque's authorial skills and these can only be fought through detailed research on
the works that gave rise to that attitude. By examining the form of Remarque's novels,
this study therefore aims to show that even though Remarque's books were (and still
24
are) popular, they are nevertheless of considerable, literary substance and should not be
discarded as Trivialliteratur.
  The terms for lowbrow literature are impressively numerous in German and include
expressions, such as Pl?schlekt?re, schlechte Volksliteratur, M?lleimer- and
Pfefferd?tenliteratur.
77
 Remarque?s name is, however, generally seen in combination
with the more common terms of Trivialliteratur and Kolportage. In order to repudiate
this view on Remarque, the classification itself ? Trivialliteratur ? needs illuminating.
German dictionaries define Trivialliteratur as ?nur der Unterhaltung dienende,
anspruchslose, inhaltlich u. sprachlich oft minderwertige Literatur?
78
 and ?meist als
k?nstlerisch wertlos erachtete Unterhaltungsliteratur?.
79
 Unterhaltungliteratur is
described as ?Literatur zur Unterhaltung [...], ohne Problematik u. tiefgr?ndige
Gedanken?.
80
 Peter Nusser proposes a similar description of the genre: ?So verbindet
sich mit dem Begriff Trivial nicht nur die Vorstellung des allgemein Bekannten,
Gew?hnlichen, Abgegriffenen, sondern auch die des Einfachen und Unkomplizierten?.
81
In the context of Remarque, a particularly apt definition is found in a Danish work on
literary history, Litteraturh?ndbogen. This work suggests that ?whilst the highbrow
literary text can ordinarily be read and reread and still create new insights, the lowbrow
literary text is a commodity item which is used up after a single reading?.
82
  The term Trivialliteratur clearly has negative connotations ? not least because it
functions as an antonym to Hochliteratur, which generally refers to quality literature of
high aesthetic value. In addition to the actual work itself, aspects such as its reception
and the author?s intention are likewise determining factors in its classification as either
high- or lowbrow literature. Whereas Hochliteratur is generally regarded a product of
conscious, artistic endeavour, Trivialliteratur hardly passes as Kunst. Indeed, as the
Danish definition above suggests, its commodity value may be the author?s chief
25
motivation. This, however, does not mean that high sales figures, as for instance those
of Im Westen or Arc de Triomphe, denote literary inferiority, although such a tendency
has been registered as characteristic of German literary criticism: ?[Es ist] gerade unter
deutschen Kritikern oft die Gewohnheit, einen schwer verst?ndlichen Autor, der selbst
einfache Gedanken kompliziert auszudr?cken versteht, h?her zu werten, als den Autor,
der komplizierte Gedanken in verst?ndlicher Form zu formulieren wei?.?
83
 Almost all
major studies on Remarque expresses disbelief that a tag of triviality continues to
adhere to Remarque?s name. However, only few offer an actual argument against the
classification. Sternburg looks to the themes of the novels for an answer. He questions
whether the issues of the works ? exile, war and notably the Holocaust ? can justifiably
be labelled trivial.
84
 This line of argument is, however, not infallible, as these themes
and especially that of war are indeed not uncommon in, what might be termed, trash
novels. This study will therefore seek to take a different approach. It will consider the
formal qualities of the novels and thereby not only show that although the style appears
simple, this is part of Remarque?s conscious narrative technique, but also that
Remarque?s novels have more to offer than merely a single reading.
  Literary criticism can be divided into extrinsic and intrinsic methods of study.
85
 The
latter can be separated into content and form, and form can be further sub-divided into a
number of individual elements which all have an impact on the overall work. There is
no definite border between these different elements, and this study ? although focussing
on the perspective ? will subsequently venture into also other areas of the form. This
will not only add to the understanding of the narrative perspective, but will also provide
insight into the consideration Remarque has given to individual aspects of his novels.
The form will furthermore be viewed in context of the contents, so that Remarque?s
awareness of their relationship will be brought to light. Whereas most Remarque studies
26
merely express disagreement with the Trivialliteratur label but offer no arguments to
counter this view, this study aims to produce a less subjective argument based on the
texts themselves and, thereby, to convey the novels? true literary merit.
  There is an array of works exploring and promoting different approaches to literary
criticism. Many of these are, however, repetitive in contents. Hence, although
acknowledging also other works such as Wayne C. Booth?s The Rhetoric of Fiction,
Bennett and Royle?s Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory, Warren and
Wellek?s Theory of Literature, and Forster?s Aspects of the Novel, this study will first
and foremost base its analysis on Boa and Reid?s detailed work on narrative strategies
in the German novel, Critical Strategies: German Fiction in the Twentieth Century.
86
The preference for this work is due to its thorough outlining of the various elements
comprising the form, but also to its attention to the interdependence of the elements and
how they in unison create a whole ? the novel.
  Boa and Reid view the novel as consisting of structural elements which affect the work
in its entirety, and textural elements which have only local impact. The aspects which
have bearing on the structure include point-of-view, time, patterns and space. Texture,
in contrast, is created by register, narrative and dialogue, imagery and tone. It should,
however, be noted that the textural elements at times exceed their otherwise solely local
impact, and instead pervade the entire work. They do, in other words, occasionally take
on structural qualities.
  The narrative perspective is, in many respects, of particular importance to a literary
text. It generally determines how a story is presented and it is thus closely connected to
the contents. However, formal elements ? structural and textural ? likewise widely
depend on the point-of-view. The nature of their application would therefore
presumably be subject to alteration, if a different narrative perspective was introduced.
27
The point-of-view is thus a key element in relation to both the novel?s content and its
form, and for this reason, it will be given precedence in this study.
  Considering the extent of Remarque's commercial success, the amount of secondary
literature available on his oeuvre is relatively low ? a testimony of the persistence of the
Trivialliteratur-tag. Darina Popstefanova expresses surprise about the continued neglect
of Remarque:
Mit ?berraschung stellt man fest: In der breitgef?cherten
Auswahl von Prosawerken unseres Jahrhunderts von
Arthur Schnitzler ?ber Max Mell und Ernst Penzoldt bis
zu Franz Xaver Kroetz wird der deutsche Schriftsteller
Erich Maria Remarque einfach ausgeklammert.
Verwundert sucht man nochmals im Namensverzeichnis,
doch vergebens. [?] Nicht einmal Im Westen nichts
Neues entspricht dem hohen literarischen Anspruch der
Autoren des Handbuches.
87
  The few major studies that do exist on Remarque relate to his life, the themes of his
novels and their reworking into films. The formal qualities of his work, however, have
been widely neglected and are mostly mentioned only in passing.
88
 Such general studies
include titles by Alfred Antkowiak, Christine Barker and R. W. Last, Richard Arthur
Firda, Harley U. Taylor, C. R. Owen, Hans Wagener, Mariana Parvanova, Haim
Gordon, Heinrich Placke, Bernhard Nienaber and, soon, also Brian Murdoch.
89
 Also
Wilhelm von Sternburg?s recent Remarque-biography explores the novels in
considerable detail. However, several of these studies contain basic mistakes which
leave an impression of unreliability.
90
  Amongst the major Remarque studies, Antkowiak makes possibly the most interesting
observation in relation to the narrative perspective. He suggests a connection between
shifts in the narrative perspective and the themes explored by Remarque in his novels.
91
28
He further proposes that whenever the author delves into a new theme, this is
accompanied by a shift also in the narrative perspective. He states that Im Westen, Der
Weg and Kameraden examine issues related to the ?lost generation?, and proposes that
Remarque applies a first person perspective, because these novels are based on
?Erfahrungswirklichkeiten [?], deren Wurzel eigenes Erleben ist?.
92
 Antkowiak views
the following novels, Liebe Deinen N?chsten, Arc de Triomphe, Funke Leben and Zeit
zu leben, as revolving around an anti-fascist theme. In contrast to the three preceding
novels, these four are written from a third-person perspective. This narrative approach
creates a certain distance between the reader and the story, and Antkowiak regards the
newly acquired distance a reflection of the fact that Remarque only experienced the
build-up to and the Second World War as a spectator in exile.
  Antkowiak?s theory falters towards the end of the Hauptwerk. Whereas the exile
novel, Lissabon, employs a framework structure and, essentially, two first-person
narrators, Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe also revolve around the refugee
topic, but are both narrated in the third person.
  Antkowiak is the only critic who searches for a logical pattern between the narrative
perspective and the themes of the novels, although other critics too have interpreted
Remarque?s use of an Ich-Erz?hler in his First World War novels as the result of their
autobiographical elements.
93
 Nevertheless, Remarque incorporates aspects from his own
life into, basically, all of his novels, and the argument is thus not infallible.
  In addition to the principal studies on Remarque, there are a number of literary critical
essays on the author and his writings, of which a decided majority are concerned with
Im Westen. These are mainly occupied with the novels? content, and only a few of them
consider any aspects of the form. Murdoch?s Narrative Strategies in Remarque?s ?Im
Westen nichts Neues?, is an exception as it explores the techniques (the perspective
29
included) which Remarque applies in Im Westen.
94
 In other studies of Remarque's
novels, however, the narrative perspective is an area which has remained largely
unexplored or, when acknowledged, its significance has been underestimated, at times,
resulting in misunderstandings. It has been claimed, for instance, that Im Westen and the
immediately succeeding novels are written in the first person singular,
95
 despite the fact
that Im Westen opens with the plural pronoun ?wir?. Such interpretations discount
Remarque's technique of interweaving singular and plural first person pronouns in this
novel. In the case of Im Westen, the interchanging ?ich? and ?wir? is, as Murdoch has
shown, a vital part of Remarque?s conveyance of the understanding of the protagonist?s
psyche and thus to the understanding of the work as a whole. Other essays note the
changing perspective, but do not elaborate on the matter. This is for instance the case in
Harald Kloiber?s otherwise insightful essay on structural and textural elements in Im
Westen,
96
 and also in John W. Chambers II and Thomas F. Schneider?s contribution to
the recent Text+Kritik volume on Remarque. The latter essay proposes that Im Westen?s
protagonist, B?umer, refers to ?wir? more often than ?ich?, but fails to comment further
on this.
97
 There are numerous equally vague references to the narrative perspective of
Im Westen. In fact, apart from Murdoch, M. Travers delivers the most insightful
interpretation of the use of personal pronouns in Im Westen.
98
 In his chapter on this
novel, Travers approaches the narrative perspective from a different angle compared to
Schneider and Chambers, in that he considers, not the frequency with which the singular
and plural personal pronouns occur, but rather where in the story B?umer presents
himself as an individual, and where he narrates from a collective point-of-view.
Although focusing on a different formal element ? in this case, imagery ? Howard M.
De Leeuw?s Master?s thesis The Function of Simile in Remarque's ?Im Westen nichts
Neues? is not irrelevant. Unlike most critics of Remarque, De Leeuw carries out a
30
formal analysis and thereby shows that even Im Westen, which dominates a vast
majority of literature on Remarque, is far from fully explored. As they have attracted
less interest, the same can naturally be said also about the other novels. De Leuuw?s
study has remained unpublished, but an essay based on his thesis can be found in the
Remarque Jahrbuch of 1994.
99
 With regards to Der Weg, Wagener, Murdoch and Mark
G. Ward all treat, in more or less detail, the perspectival shifts which occur in the
work.
100
Aside from the two early First World War novels, the narrative viewpoint has not been
explored in great detail in any of the other novels. The only other work which has been
granted some attention in relation to its viewpoint is Lissabon. This is due to its striking
application of a framework, a formal device predominantly associated with the classical
German novella. Most of the major studies on Remarque's oeuvre note the use of a
framework in Lissabon, but only Murdoch proceeds to examine this formal device even
in slightly more detail.
101
 There are likewise only few references to Lissabon?s
distinctive structure to be found in the literary critical essays. Helga Schreckenberger?s
Durchkommen ist alles is an exception. She interprets the intertwining of the two
characters? narratives as connected to their physically moving from one establishment to
another, whilst Schwarz (the narrator of the framed story) tells of his years in exile.
102
  Most literary studies on any work tend to concentrate ? and rightly so ? on the contents
and the message the author is attempting to put across. However, the formal elements
should not be neglected. In fact, acknowledgement of their existence and nature can
reveal important information about the work. The perspective has, for instance, decisive
impact on characterization. This has, however, not yet been fully looked at in relation to
Remarque?s novels, and severe misconceptions can be found in existing secondary
material. Hans Wagener?s following statement exemplifies this. In his treatment of Im
31
Westen, he claims that the characters? lack of political insight and their failure to
consider the war in a wider perspective are due to the fact, ?da? es sich hier ? mit
Ausnahme des Erz?hlers B?umer ? um ziemlich schlichte Gem?ter handelt [?]?.
103
This is neither a fair nor a correct judgement. Firstly, three of the other young soldiers
are, similarly to the narrator, B?umer, school leavers, and there is no indication that they
should be intellectually inferior to the protagonist. In fact, M?ller is said to dream of
taking the Notexamen, and in shell fire ?b?ffelt er physikalische Lehrs?tze? (Im Westen,
p. 12). Secondly, the other soldiers who have left work and family for the front, such as
Tjaden, Haie Westhus, Detering and Katczinsky, are by no means portrayed as inferior
or ?schlicht?, but rather with respect. They have invaluable experience in survival, and
B?umer expresses only admiration and appreciation for their practical knowledge. Apart
from the two closing paragraphs, the narrative is presented entirely from B?umer?s
point-of-view. Had Wagener taken this into consideration, he would not have
misinterpreted the presentation of the characters.
Despite the fact that a few essays have attempted to kindle interest in the formal
qualities of Remarque?s work,
104
 researchers have thus far focused heavily on the
thematic aspects of the novels. Moreover, a majority of these deals only with Im
Westen, leaving the greater part of the novels relatively unexplored. This study will
suggest that the extent of the neglect is closely related to the Trivialliteratur tag which
has been attached to Remarque?s name since he wrote Im Westen. It will, moreover,
claim that this labelling of Remarque?s work is undeserved because it arose,
predominantly, as a result of the times at which the novels were published, and because
of the general nature of German literary evaluation. Thus, by analyzing the formal
qualities of the Hauptwerk ? the part of the oeuvre which gave Remarque fame, but
which subsequently also caused his widespread rejection ? it is the aim of this study to
32
show that the novels are indeed worthy of academic interest. It will propose that
Remarque was an author of popular-, but not trivial literature. With reference to already
existing work on Remarque, this study will seek to further the understanding of his
novels and their literary value, and, in a wider context, to instigate academic discourse
in this much neglected area.
33
                                              Notes to Introduction
1. Erich Maria Remarque, Im Westen nichts Neues ([1929] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998). All page references will hereafter be based on this edition. The title will
be abbreviated Im Westen.
2. Thomas F. Schneider, ?Die andere Liebe. Anmerkungen zu den Erz?hlungen und
Essays von Erich Maria Remarque?, in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und
Essays, edited by Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), p.
305; Thomas F. Schneider and Donald Weiss, Erich Maria Remarque: Die Traumbude,
Station am Horizont. Die unselbst?ndigen Publikationen (1916-1968). Eine
Bibliographie (Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1995), p. 8.
3. Erich Maria Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, edited by
Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
1998), p. 23. For this early novel idea, see also Thomas Schneider, Erich Maria
Remarque: Ein Chronist des 20. Jahrhunderts: Eine Biographie in Bildern und
Dokumenten (Bramsche: Rasch, 1991), p. 21.
4. This short story with which Remarque won a competition in the Heimatfreund: Ein
Blatt f?r die Jugend des Regierungsbezirks Osnabr?ck is the earliest known publication
by Remarque. Remarque, ?Von den Freuden und M?hen der Jugendwehr?, in Das
unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte, edited by Thomas F. Schneider and
Tilman Westphalen (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 17-21.
5. Remarque, ?Die Traumbude?, in Das unbekannte Werk, I: Die Traumbude, Gam,
Station am Horizont, edited by Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), 19-173.
6. See, for instance, diary entries from 20 August and 10 September 1918 in Das
Unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, pp. 251-53, 255-57. H?rstemeier died
prematurely of tuberculosis, a disease which, perhaps as a result of Remarque?s close
friendship to H?rstemeier, forms an underlying theme in several of Remarque?s later
novels.
7. Petra Oerke, ?Erl?uterungen: Die Traumbude (1920)?, in Das unbekannte Werk, I:
Die Traumbude, Gam, Station am Horizont, pp. 563-70 (p. 563).
8. Richard Arthur Firda, ?Young Erich Maria Remarque: Die Traumbude?, Monatshefte,
71 (1979), pp. 49-55 (p. 51).
9. Some exceptions include: Firda, ?Young Erich Maria Remarque?; Wilhelm von
Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal. Erich Maria Remarque: Eine Biographie
(Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2000); Brian Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria
Remarque: Sparks of Life (Rochester etc: Camden House, 2006), pp. 13-18.
34
10. Remarque, ?Steppengewitter?, in Das unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und
Gedichte (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 144-49. The almost identical
sections are: Remarque, ?Steppengewitter?, pp. 146-49 and Remarque, ?Gam?, in Das
unbekannte Werk, I: Die Traumbude, Gam, Station am Horizont, pp. 175-361.
11. Schneider, ?Erl?uterungen: Gam (1924)?, in Das unbekannte Werk, I: Die
Traumbude, Gam, Station am Horizont, pp. 571-75. Also, Murdoch, The Novels of
Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 20-21.
12. Both of these names are found in Gam. Clerfayt later returns as the male protagonist
of the novel Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge. With regards to the name of Ravic, it
not only features in Gam, the protagonist of Arc de Triomphe is also known by this
name. Remarque?s last novel, Schatten im Paradies, likewise has a character by the
name of Ravic. Moreover, Remarque often referred to himself as Ravic. See: ?Sag mir,
da? du mich liebst...?: Erich Maria Remarque ? Marlene Dietrich, Zeugnisse einer
Leidenschaft, edited by Werner Fuld and Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer
und Witsch, 2001), for example pp. 122-23, 134-37.
13. Aside from being published in Das unbekannte Werk together with Die Traumbude
and Gam, of the three early novels, only Station am Horizont has been published
individually. Erich Maria Remarque, Station am Horizont (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2000). All references will be based on the latter edition.
14. Erich Maria Remarque, ?Das Rennen Vanderveldes?, in Das unbekannte Werk, IV:
Kurzprosa und Gedichte, pp. 155-61. The short story is also contained in Herbstfahrt
eines Phantasten, pp. 46-52.
15. In both Station am Horizont (Chapter Seven) and Das Rennen Vanderveldes the
protagonist loses an important race because he rescues a dog from the racetrack.
However, he thereby gains the affection of the story?s heroine.
16. A German translation of the treatment is contained in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten.
Remarque, ?Die andere Liebe?, in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten, pp. 132-47.
17. Although the works are not obviously connected, the name of Ravic, for instance,
features in Gam, Arc de Triomphe and Schatten.
18. Schneider, ?Erl?uterungen: Station am Horizont (1927)?, in Das unbekannte Werk, I:
Die Traumbude, Gam, Station am Horizont, edited by Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman
Westphalen (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 575-80 (p. 579). See also
Schneider and Weiss, Erich Maria Remarque: Die Traumbude, Station am Horizont.
Die unselbst?ndigen Publikationen, pp. 10-11.
19. See, in particular, Schneider, ?Erwartungen von Rezensenten an Kriegsliteratur: Die
Rezeption von Erich Maria Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues, 1928-1930?, Lili-
Zeitschrift f?r Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, 28 (1998),
pp. 119-32. See also, Schneider, ??Es ist ein Buch ohne Tendenz? ? Im Westen nichts
Neues: Autor- und Textsysteme im Rahmen eines Konstitutions- und Wirkungsmodells
f?r Literatur?, Krieg und Literatur, 1 (1989), pp. 23-39; Schneider, ?Prolegomena zur
35
Darstellung der ?Entstehung? und ?Rezeption? von Erich Maria Remarques Im Westen
nichts Neues?, Krieg und Literatur, 4 (1992), pp. 85-100.
20. Wilhelm von Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 102; Oerke,
?Erl?uterungen: Die Traumbude (1920)?, p. 563; Richard Arthur Firda, All Quiet on the
Western Front: Literary Analysis and Cultural Context (New York etc.: Twayne, 1993),
p. 26; Claudia Glunz and Thomas F. Schneider, Elfriede Scholz, geb. Remark: Im
Namen des deutschen Volkes; Dokumente einer justitiellen Ermordung (Osnabr?ck:
Rasch, 1997), p. 15.
21. Tilman Westphalen, ?Ein Simplicissimus des 20. Jahrhunderts. Nachwort von
Tilman Westphalen? in Im Westen nichts Neues, p. 200.
22. The figures quoted are not consistent. Sternburg suggests that Im Westen has been
translated into 49 languages, whereas Tilman Westphalen claims that it is more than 50.
The number of copies sold also varies. Both Westphalen and Sternburg approximate the
amount to be around 20 million, whereas Harley U. Taylor proposes that the figure was
between 30 and 40 million at the time of the author?s death in 1970.
In an interview from 1966, Remarque states that the number of sold copies is 20 to 30
million, but he also notes that the exact figure is impossible to determine due to
widespread, illegal publication of the novel in the former Soviet Union. Tilman
Westphalen, ?Ein Simplicissimus des 20. Jahrhunderts?, p. 200; Sternburg, Als w?re
alles das letzte Mal, p. 147; Harley U. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and
Film Biography (New York: Peter Lang, 1989), p. 63; Erich Maria Remarque, ?Gr??ere
und kleinere Ironien meines Lebens: Interview mit sich selbst (1966)?, in Ein militanter
Pazifist: Texte und Interviews 1929-1966, edited by Thomas F. Schneider ([1994]
Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 138-43 (p. 141).
23. Axel Eggebrecht, ?Gespr?ch mit Remarque (1929)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist, pp.
43-51 (p. 48).
24. Hans-Harald M?ller, Der Krieg und die Schriftsteller: Der Kriegsroman der
Weimarer Republik (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1986). See, in particular, section 3.2.1:
?Normale Anspr?che an die poetische Matrix des Romans?, pp. 67-72.
25. A number of critics have overestimated the connection between B?umer and
Remarque. Firda treats their identities as interchangeable: ?Remarque?s memory and
portrait of his father in key pages of All Quiet is often an unflattering one. When the
young soldier Paul Baumer [B?umer] comes home on leave, he says that his father
would prefer to see his son only in uniform, but Paul refuses him. The novel suggests
that there was little personal warmth between Remarque and his father [?].? Firda,
Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels (New York: Peter Lang,
1988), p. 2. Firda expresses similar confusion in relation to the mothers of B?umer and
Remarque respectively: ?Not much is known about Remarque?s mother, other than the
literary portrait of her found in a few pages of Im Westen nichts Neues?. Firda, ?Young
Erich Maria Remarque?, p. 53. Also Hilton Tims? insertion of solidi between the name
of the author and that of some of his protagonists ? ?B?umer/ Remark? and ?Bodmer/
Remarque? ?  gives the impression that these works are autobiographical. Hilton Tims,
Erich Maria Remarque: The Last Romantic (London: Constable und Robinson, 2003),
pp. 7, 16. A similar disregard for the differing identities of Remarque and B?umer is
36
found in Bohdan Czesko?s short article on this novel in the Polish weekly paper,
Kuznica, in 1946. ?Es blieben ein f?r immer in der Schreibtischlade vergessenes, vor
dem Abmarsch an die Front von Remarque angefangenes Drama ?Saul? und ein Sto?
Jugendgedichte?. Bohdan Czesko, ?Ich habe Remarque erschossen [1946]?, in Erich
Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 2 (1992), pp. 33-34 (p. 33).
26. For the reception and political impact of Im Westen, the following sources are
particularly valuable: M?ller, Der Krieg und die Schriftsteller. Also, Der Fall
Remarque. Im Westen nichts Neues: Eine Dokumentation, edited by B?rbel Schrader
(Leipzig: Reclam, 1992).
27. Peter D?rp, ?Goebbels? Kampf gegen Remarque: Eine Untersuchung ?ber die
Hintergr?nde des Hasses und der Agitation Goebbels? gegen den Roman Im Westen
nichts Neues von Erich Maria Remarque?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook,
1 (1991), pp. 48-64 (p. 55).
28. Fritz H. Landshoff, Amsterdam, Keizersgracht 333. Querido-Verlag. Erinnerungen
eines Verlegers: Mit Briefen und Dokumenten (Berlin and Weimar: Aufbau, 1991),
p.103.
29. Hans Wagener, ?Remarque in Amerika ? zwischen Erfolg und Exilbewu?tsein?,
Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 9 (1999), pp. 18-38 (p. 21).
30. Remarque, Der Weg zur?ck ([1931] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001).
Remarque, Drei Kameraden ([1938] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001). All
page references will hereafter be based on these editions. The titles will be abbreviated
to Der Weg and Kameraden, respectively.
31. The German Foreign Ministry states in a document from 21 March 1938: ?Erich
Remark hat mit Unterst?tzung durch die j?dische Ullstein-Presse jahrelang in
gemeinster und niedertr?chtigster Weise das Andenken an die Gefallenen des
Weltkriegs beschimpft und sich schon dadurch aus der deutschen Volksgemeinschaft
ausgeschlossen?. There is a copy of these documents in Alexander Stephan,
?Ausgeb?rgert: Erich Maria Remarque und die Nazi-B?rokratie?, Erich Maria
Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 7 (1997), pp. 7-26. Remarque's German citizenship was
never restored.
32. Remarque, Liebe Deinen N?chsten ([1941] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
2001). Remarque, Arc de Triomphe ([1946] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001).
All page references will hereafter be based on these editions. The titles will not be
abbreviated.
33. Tilman Westphalen, ?Ein Mensch ohne Pa? ist eine Leiche auf Urlaub: Nachwort
von Tilman Westphalen?, in Liebe Deinen N?chsten, pp. 321-40 (p. 335).
34. Remarque, Der Funke Leben ([1952] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2000). All
page references will hereafter be based on this edition. The title will be abbreviated
Funke Leben.
37
35. Remarque, ?Der Funke Leben. Vorwort (1952)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist, pp. 91-93
(p. 92).
36. Westphalen?, ?Die W?rde des Menschen ist unantastbar: Nachwort von Tilman
Westphalen?, in Funke Leben, pp. 375-401 (pp. 391-93).
37. In his diary 22 March 1952, Remarque wrote: ?Nach dem schweizerischen Verleger
Scherz hat nun der deutsche Verleger Desch Angst bekommen vor dem letzten Buch.
Guggenheim [Remarque's agent] hat mit Kiepenheuer abgeschlossen?. Remarque, Das
unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 469.
38. Westphalen has quoted a number of both positive and negative reviews in ?Die
W?rde des Menschen ist unantastbar?, pp. 394-97. See also, Claudia Glunz, ??Eine harte
Sache?. Zur Rezeption von Erich Maria Remarques Der Funke Leben?, in ?Reue ist
undeutsch?. Erich Maria Remarques Der Funke Leben und das Konzentrationslager
Buchenwald: Katalog zur Ausstellung (Bramsche: Rasch, 1992), pp. 21-27.
39. Schneider, ??Und Befehl ist Befehl. Oder nicht??; Erich Maria Remarque: Zeit zu
leben und Zeit zu Sterben (1954)?, in Von B?ll bis Buchheim: Deutsche Kriegsprosa
nach 1945, edited by Hans Wagener (Amsterdam etc.: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 231-47 (p.
232). Although, not specifically relating to Remarque, Liepmann claims that by dealing
with the issue of the National Socialist past, ?Publizisten und andere Mahner ? [sind]
immer wieder beschuldigt worden, auf solche Art das eigene Nest zu beschmutzen?.
Heinz Liepman, Ein deutscher Jude denkt ?ber Deutschland nach (Munich: Ner-Tamid,
1961), p. 33. The booklet includes an article by Liepman entitled Sollen wie unser
eigenes Nest beschmutzen? in which he focuses on Germany?s struggle to
acknowledging its immediate past.  
40. Remarque, Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben ([1954] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2001). All page references will hereafter be based on this edition. The title will
be abbreviated Zeit zu leben.
41. Leif Blaedel, ??Information? afsl?rer: Remarque sat under censur i Tyskland?,
Information, 9 October 1954, p. 10; See also, Blaedel, ?Den tyske forl?gger om
censuren af Remarque?, Information, 18 October 1954, no page.
42. Westphalen, ?Wann wird zum Mord, was man sonst Heldentum nennt? Nachwort
von Tilman Westphalen?, in Remarque, Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben, pp. 401-20
(406). See also, Maggie Sargeant?s chapter on Remarque in Kitsch und Kunst:
Presentations of a Lost War (Oxford etc.: Peter Lang, 2005).
43. Westphalen, ?Wann wird zum Mord, was man sonst Heldentum nennt??, p. 406.
44. Blaedel, ??Information? afsl?rer: Remarque sat under censur i Tyskland?. An article
from December the same year, 1954, discloses that in 1949, when publishing a
shortened version of Jaroslav Ha_ek?s novel, Die Abenteuer des braven Soldaten
Schwejk, Kiepenheuer und Witsch apparently omitted sentences which were likewise
deemed too satirical for the German readership. Blaedel, ?Nyt fra vestfronten:
Remarques censor paa krigsstien igen?, Information, 11 December 1954, no page. See
also: Hannes Heer, ?Blockierter Schmerz: Warum das Erinnern an die Verbrechen der
38
Wehrmacht so schwerf?llt?, Neue deutsche Literatur: Zeitschrift f?r deutschsprachige
Literatur und Kritik, 5 (1999), pp. 19-32 (pp. 21-22).
45. Excerpt from Remarque's diary entry 11 April 1954. Remarque, Das unbekannte
Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 495.
46. Blaedel, ?Den tyske forl?gger om censuren af Remarque?.
47. Only the chief alterations are mentioned here. For more detail see Westphalen,
?Wann wird zum Mord, was man sonst Heldentum nennt??, especially pp. 409-414. See
also, Schneider, ??Und Befehl ist Befehl. Oder nicht???.
48. Schneider, ??Und Befehl ist Befehl. Oder nicht???, p. 232.
49. M. Feldmann, ?Gespr?ch mit E. M. Remarque (1946)?, in Remarque, Ein militanter
Pazifist, pp. 84-90 (p. 86).
50. Remarque, ?Gr??ere und kleinere Ironien meines Lebens. Interview mit sich selbst?,
p. 257.
51. See, Murdoch, ?We Germans...? Remarques englischer Roman All quiet on the
western front?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 6 (1996), pp. 10-34.
   
52. Remarque, Der Feind: Erz?hlungen ([1993] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
1998). The short stories are also comprised in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten, pp. 69-114,
as well as in Das unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte, pp. 324-69.
53. Remarque, Der schwarze Obelisk ([1956] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2002).
All page references will hereafter be based on this edition. The title will be abbreviated
Obelisk.
54. Printed in Ein militanter Pazifist, pp. 96-101; Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten, pp. 241-
48; Das unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte, pp. 404-09. The film script Der
letzte Akt: Drehbuch was written by Remarque in 1955. This is contained in Das
unbekannte Werk, III: Die letzte Station, Der Letzte Akt (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998), pp. 11-151.
55. Based on information by Johannes Mario Simmel, Werner Fuld gives an amusing
account of the episode. Werner Fuld, ?Ein Treffen mit alten Bekannten: Zur
Vorgeschichte des Romans ?Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge??, Text +Kritik:
Zeitschrift f?r Literatur: Erich Maria Remarque, 149, edited by Heinz Ludwig Arnold
(Munich: Richard Boorberg, 2001), pp. 65-68.
56. Remarque, Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge ([1961] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2000). All page references will hereafter be based on this edition. The title will
be abbreviated Der Himmel.
57. Remarque, Die Nacht von Lissabon ([1962] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
2001). All page references will hereafter be based on this edition. The title will be
abbreviated Lissabon.
39
58. Remarque, Schatten im Paradies ([1971] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998).
All page references will hereafter be based on this edition. The title will be abbreviated
Schatten.
59. Schneider, ?Erl?uterungen?, in Das unbekannte Werk, II: Das gelobte Land, pp. 435-
42 (pp. 436-37). Westphalen, ?Ein Tornister voll mit Blei: Nachwort von Tilman
Westphalen?, in Schatten, pp. 495-514 (pp. 498-99).
60. Marc Wilhelm K?ster, ?Die Manuskriptlage zu Remarque's ?Schatten im Paradies??,
in Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 5 (1995), pp. 88-108.
61. Westphalen, ?Ein Tornister voll mit Blei?, pp. 498-501.
62. This perspective has been portrayed also in Joachim Fest?s Der Untergang and
Traudel Junge?s Bis zur letzten Stunde. Hitlers Sekret?rin erz?hlt ihr Leben both of
which formed basis for the 2004 German film production Der Untergang, Released in
English as Downfall.
63. Titles of plays by Remarque include: Die letzte Station; Die Heimkehr des Enoch J.
Jones; Brunnenstra?e and the fragmented comedy La Barcarole. As early as 1920,
Remarque allegedly composed a play entitled Bubi. For information on time of origin
and premieres of the plays see Schneider ?Erich Maria Remarque ? Kurzbiografie in
Daten?, Text und Kritik, 149, pp. 79-92. See also, Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte
Mal for further details of the plays. Taylor constitutes yet another source. He devotes a
chapter to Full Circle; the name under which Die letzte Station was staged in America.
Taylor, A Literary and Film Biography.
64. The diary entries contained in Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher
constitute only about ten percent of Remarque?s personal journals. The other ninety
percent can be accessed in the Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenszentrum in Osnabr?ck.
65. Friedrich Luft, ?Das Profil. Gespr?ch mit Erich Maria Remarque (1963)?, in Ein
militanter Pazifist, pp. 118-33 (p.131).
66. See, for instance, the chapter ?A Writer?s Apprenticeship?, in Firda, All Quiet on the
Western Front: Literary Analysis and Cultural Context, pp. 23-29.
67. Scheider and Weiss, Erich Maria Remarque: Die Traumbude, Station am Horizont.
Die unselbst?ndigen Publikationen, p. 7.
68. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 30.
69. Schneider, ??Ein ekler Leichenwurm?: Motive und Rezeption der Schriften Erich
Maria Remarques zur nationalsozialistischen deutschen Vergangenheit?, Text +Kritik,
149, edited by Heinz Ludwig Arnold (Munich: Richard Boorberg, 2001) pp. 42-54 (pp.
43, 53).
70. Thomas Mann, Tageb?cher 1937-1939, edited by Peter de Mendelssohn (Frankfurt
am Main: Fischer, 1982), pp. 387,413.
40
71. Harry Graf Kessler, Aus den Tageb?chern 1918-1937, edited by Wolfgang Pfeiffer-
Belli (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1965), p. 287.
72. Bertolt Brecht, Arbeitsjournal. Erster Band 1938 bis 1942, edited by Werner Hecht
(Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1973), p. 350.
73. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 434.
74. Der Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenpreis der Stadt Osnabr?ck und seine
Verleihung: http://www.remarque.uos.de/richtl.htm The web-site was accessed 22
September 2003 via the web-site of the Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenszentrum:
http://www.remarque.uos.de/intern.htm .
75. ?Die Folgen dieser Rezeption des Autors Erich Maria Remarque in der fr?hen
Bundesrepublik waren nachhaltig: Bis zur Mitte der achtziger Jahre gab es keinerlei
literaturwissenschaftliche Besch?ftigung mit dem Autor und seinem Werk (Ausnahme:
?Im Westen nicht Neues?) in der Bundesrepublik, erst Anfang der neunziger Jahre
erfolgte die erste Dissertation ?ber Remarque; bis heute existiert keine Ausgabe aller
Werke ? die fr?hen Romane, die Theaterst?cke, Drehb?cher, die ?ber 300 Texte Lyrik,
Kurzprosa, Essays wurden in einer Auswahl erst 1998 publiziert, der Umfang des
Gesamtwerks ist noch unbekannt. Ebenfalls erst 1998 erschien eine zuverl?ssige
Biografie [...]?. Schneider, ??Ein ekler Leichenwurm??, p. 53.
  
76. Martina Kruse, ?10 Jahre Erich-Maria-Remarque-Gesellschaft e. V. in Osnabr?ck?,
Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 6 (1996), pp. 57-73.
77. Hans Friedrich Foltin explores the wide range of alternative labels which have been
attached to high- and lowbrow literature and outlines their contrasting meanings. Hans
Friedrich Foltin, ?Die minderwertige Prosaliteratur. Einteilung und Bezeichnungen?,
Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift f?r Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte, 39, no. 2,
pp. 165-329 (pp. 288-323); also, Foltin, ?Zur Erforschung der Unterhaltungs- und
Trivialliteratur, insbesondere im Bereich des Romans? in Studien zur Trivialliteratur,
edited by Heinz Otto Burger (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1968), pp. 242-
270 (p. 261).
78. Duden: Das gro?e W?rterbuch der deutschen Sprache in sechs B?nden: VI, edited
by Rudolf K?ster and Wolfgang M?ller (Mannheim etc.: Duden, 1981), p. 2632.
79. Deutsches W?rterbuch: in sechs B?nden: VI, edited by Gerhard Wahrig, Hildegard
Kr?mer and Harald Zimmermann (Wiesbaden etc.: F. A. Brockhaus, 1984), p. 299.
80. Deutsches W?rterbuch: in sechs B?nden: VI, edited by Gerhard Wahrig, Hildegard
Kr?mer and Harald Zimmermann, p. 423.
81. Peter Nusser, Trivialliteratur (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1991), p. 2.
82. Translated from Danish: ?Mens den litter?re tekst almindeligvis kan l?ses og
genl?ses og stadig skabe ny erkendelse, er den triviallitter?re tekst en forbrugsvare,
som kan udt?mmes ved en enkelt genneml?sning [?]?. Litteraturh?ndbogen, edited by
41
Ib Fischer Hansen, Jens Anker J?rgensen, Knud Michelsen, J?rgen S?rensen, Lars
Tonnesen (Copenhagen: Nordisk, 1981), p. 511.
83. Landshoff, Amsterdam, Keizersgracht 333, p. 103.
84. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 31.
85. Warren and Wellek divide literary analysis, roughly, into extrinsic and intrinsic
methods of approach. The extrinsic method is concerned with setting, environment and
external causes, and may, for instance, consider a work in its social or political context.
In contrast, the intrinsic method focuses on the form and the techniques the author
applies. Ren? Wellek and Austin Warren, Theory of Literature ([1942] London etc.:
Penguin, 1980).
86. Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction ([1961] Chicago etc.: University of
Chicago Press, 1983); Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royle, Introduction to Literature,
Criticism and Theory ([1995] Harlow etc.: Prentice Hall, 1999); Wellek and Warren,
Theory of Literature; E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel, edited by Oliver Stallybrass
([1927] London etc.: Penguin, 2000); Elizabeth Boa and J. H. Reid, Critical strategies:
German Fiction in the Twentieth Century (London: Edward Arnold, 1972).
87. Darina Popstefanova, Weltb?rger. Auf den Spuren Remarques in Osnabr?ck.
Literaturwerkstatt Remarque: Unterrichtsmaterialien (Text- und Quellensammlung)
(Unpublished teaching material. Available in the Erich Maria Remarque-
Friedenszentrum in Osnabr?ck), p. 4.
88. The only major studies which predominantly concentrate on an aspect of the form
are Howard M. De Leeuw, The Function of Simile in Remarque's ?Im Westen nichts
Neues? (unpublished Master?s thesis, University of Arizona, 1989); Mariana
Parvanova, ??das Symbol der Ewigkeit ist der Kreis?: Eine Untersuchung der Motive
in den Romanen von Erich Maria Remarque (Berlin: TENEA, 2003).
89. Most of the studies of the general oeuvre nevertheless give precedence to Im
Westen. See, for instance, Alfred Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und
Werk (Berlin: Das europ?ische Buch, 1983). Antkowiak?s study which constitutes less
than 150 pages dedicates more than 30 of these to Im Westen. A similar pattern is found
in Hans Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque. In Wagener, Im Westen
occupies almost 30 pages, whereas none of Remarque?s other novels is allocated more
than 10 pages. Hans Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque (Columbia, South
Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1991). Barker and Last?s study of
Remarque is, alongside Murdoch?s The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque: Sparks of
Life, one of the most informative, general secondary works about Remarque. However,
Barker and Last likewise allow considerable more space to Im Westen than to any of the
other novels. Christine R. Barker and R. W. Last, Erich Maria Remarque (London:
Oswald Wolff, 1979). Moreover, the dust jackets of the latter work and that of Tims?
Erich Maria Remarque: The Last Romantic make a point of stressing that they are about
?the Author of All Quiet on the Western Front?.
90. Wagener suggests, for instance, that B?umer in Im Westen visits Josef Behm?s
mother whilst on leave. It is, however, Kemmerich?s mother he goes to see (Im Westen,
42
p. 21). A few pages later Wagener also refers to B?umer as Franz B?umer (his real
name is Paul B?umer), presumably because of the phonetic resemblance to Franz
Baumer; the author of the short biography Erich Maria Remarque. It is also possible
that he has confused the first names of (Paul) B?umer and (Franz) Kemmerich.
Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 21,29. This is indeed what
Wilhelm J. Schwarz does in his War and the Mind of Germany, 1 (Frankfurt am Main
etc.: Peter/ Herbert Lang, 1975), p. 30. Antkowiak?s general, Remarque-study also
contains basic mistakes. In relation to Der Weg he states, for instance, that Ludwig
Breyer shoots himself, whereas, in fact, he cuts his wrists. Antkowiak, Erich Maria
Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 52.
91. Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, pp. 74-75.
92. Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 74.
93. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 112-13.
94. Murdoch, ?Narrative Strategies in Remarque?s ?Im Westen nichts Neues??, New
German Studies, 17 (1992/3), pp. 175-201.
95. Barker and Last say: ?From Im Westen nichts Neues onwards, [?] Remarque's
novels are [?] written in the first person singular [?]?. Barker and Last, Erich Maria
Remarque, pp. 112-13. Also, Antkowiak ignores the first person plural which is found
in a number of Remarque's novels. Nonetheless, Antkowiak?s table dividing the novels
in two categories hasw the headings: ?1. Person Singularis? and ?3. Person Singularis?.
Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 74.
96. Harald Kloiber, ?Struktur, Stil und Motivik in Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues?,
Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 4 (1994), pp. 65-78 (p. 68).
97. John W. Chambers II and Thomas F. Schneider, ??Im Westen nichts Neues? und das
Bild des ?modernen? Krieg?, Text+Kritik, 149, pp. 8-18 (p. 9).
98. Travers points to, for example, the ambiguity of B?umer?s references to ?einer? and
?jeder? in a particular paragraph of Im Westen (Im Westen, p. 16).  M. P. A. Travers,
German Novels on The First World War and their Ideological Implications, 1918-1933
(Stuttgart: Akademischer Verlag Hans-Dieter Heinz, 1982), p. 91.
99. De Leeuw, ?The Function of Simile in Remarque's ?Im Westen nichts Neues??. A
part of the thesis is published in Howard M. De Leeuw, ?Remarque?s Use of Simile in
Im Westen nichts Neues?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 4 (1994), pp. 45-
64.
100. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque , pp. 43-44. Mark G. Ward, ?The
Structure of Der Weg Z?ruck?, in Remarque Against War: Essays for the Centenary of
Erich Maria Remarque 1898-1970, edited by Brian Murdoch, Mark Ward, Maggie
Sargeant (Glasgow: Scottish Papers in Germanic Studies, 1998), pp. 85-97. Murdoch,
?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg zur?ck: Kriegsende und Nachkriegszeit bei Erich Maria
Remarque?, in Text+Kritik, 149, pp. 19-29.
43
101. Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque. The framework structure is
treated somewhat in Firda, A Thematic Analysis of His Novels; Sternburg, Als w?re alles
das letzte Mal; Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque; and Barker and Last,
Erich Maria Remarque.
102. Helga Schreckenberger, ??Durchkommen ist alles?: Physischer und psychischer
Existenzkampf in Erich Maria Remarque's Exil-Romanen?, Text+Kritik, 149, pp. 30-41
(p. 35).
103. Hans Wagener, ?Erich Maria Remarque, Im Westen nichts Neues ? Zeit zu leben
und Zeit zu Sterben: Ein Autor, zwei Weltkriege?, in Erich Maria Remarque
Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 10 (2000), pp. 31-52 (p. 41).
104. De Leeuw, ?Remarque's Use of Simile in Im Westen nichts Neues?; Kloiber,
?Struktur, Stil und Motivik in Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues?; Murdoch, ?Narrative
Strategies in Remarque?s ?Im Westen nichts Neues?; Parvanova, ??das Symbol der
Ewigkeit ist der Kreis?.
44
                                            Chapter 1
                                 Im Westen nichts Neues
  In Im Westen, which brought Remarque immediate fame, the author takes a stand
which differs from the majority of German First World War novels. Contrary to the
British heritage of First World War literature, in which the war is generally portrayed as
a completely senseless loss of lives, a dominating percentage of German war literature
from that same period poses the antithetic view that the war was an inevitable, natural
happening and a vital part of an organic development of the individual and, thus, of the
nation as a whole.
1
 Works, which present the war from a nationalistic point-of-view
and, at the time, aimed to revive and nourish the military spirit, include, amongst many
others, titles by Franz Schauwecker, Ernst J?nger, Werner Beumelburg, Georg Bucher
and Thor Goote. Remarque?s narratives of the war, the Weimar years and the group of
young men commonly referred to as the ?lost generation?, however, do not comply with
this paradigm. Alongside a minority of other German authors, such as Ludwig Renn,
Arnold Zweig, Edlef K?ppen, Fritz von Unruh and Ernst Johannsen, Remarque
distanced himself from the nationalistic point-of-view expressed by the majority of his
compatriotic fellow writers.
2
 Ann P. Linder has noted that despite their opposing views,
the liberal and the conservative (or nationalistic) German First World War novels have
certain common thematic traits:
3
 They generally emphasize the essentiality of
comradeship whilst exhibiting the hostility of the soldiers on the front towards the
echelons and people at home.
4
 In addition, both types of novels search to make sense of
the war and also suggest that it has caused a change in the individual.
5
 Despite their
45
ideologically opposing views, there are therefore nevertheless considerable parallels
between the liberal and the conservative war novels. This is the case not only in relation
to their contents, but also with regards to their form. In order to appear authentic and
more convincing, but also to give the works a sense of immediacy and thereby add
dramatic effect, many of the war narratives are, for instance, presented from the
Froschperspektive and reflect, with more or less consistency, the view of a single
individual.
6
 Given these similarities, references to works of both doctrinal camps will be
incorporated in the analysis of Im Westen.
  Before turning the attention to Im Westen, its relationship to the succeeding two
novels, Der Weg and Kameraden, deserves mentioning. The three works are
thematically linked in as far as they all deal with the Great War and the Weimar years.
In a prologue to the manuscript, Pat, which Remarque later developed into the novel
Kameraden, the author states that the ?vorliegende Buch der letzte einer Reihe [ist]?.
Thus, Im Westen, Der Weg and Pat were initially intended to form a trilogy concerned
with ?die Frage des Lebens und des Todes; die Frage: warum??.
7
 In the process of
reworking Pat, however, Remarque omitted the prologue, but the final product remains
focussed on the question: why? In fact, attempting to make sense of life and death came
to form a continuing thread through most of Remarque's works. Despite this shared
underlying theme as well as other, thematic and formal, links between Im Westen, Der
Weg and Kameraden, similarities in locations and characters in the former two works
are discontinued in Kameraden. The three works nevertheless remain unequivocally
bound together, although the connection between Im Westen and Der Weg is more
pronounced. The characteristics of the two protagonists, B?umer and Birkholz, are, for
instance, strikingly similar. They share the initial, ?B? and both names provoke thought
associations to trees: B?umer/ Baum and Birkholz/ Birk and Holz.
8
 Set in the war and
46
immediate post-war era, respectively, Im Westen and Der Weg can be paralleled with
Ludwig Renn?s Krieg and Nachkrieg, and Ernst Glaeser?s Jahrgang 1902 and Frieden.
Despite the fact that Kameraden does not immediately appear to form a direct
continuation of Im Westen and Der Weg, it nevertheless follows up the theme of former
soldiers coping with the return to civilian life in the Weimar Republic. Further links
between the three novels shall be explored in Chapter Two, and it will be argued that
Remarque?s First World War novels do indeed constitute a trilogy.
  Im Westen, Der Weg and Kameraden are all related by first-person narrators. A
particular problem generally arises when reflecting on the perspective of first-person
narratives ? that of the relationship between the author and his narrator, and which of
the two is truly relating the story. The erroneous fusion by literary critics of Remarque?s
and B?umer?s identities has already been touched upon in the Introduction chapter, but
even when the two are acknowledged as separate entities, the narrative perspective has
nevertheless proven to create confusion. Howard M. De Leeuw, for instance, suggests
that Im Westen is presented from both Remarque?s and B?umer?s perspectives, but
treats them as ?interchangeabl[e]?, as he finds it ?not of primary importance? to
determine ?[w]here the two perspectives differ?.
9
 As the author, Remarque is, of course,
the creator of B?umer and, therefore, the mind behind both the novel?s content and its
form. De Leeuw, however, mistakenly concludes that the narrative perspective
subsequently also becomes that of Remarque. However, if a first person narrator is
entirely consistent, the reader will be presented with this narrator?s viewpoint only. A
narrative in the first person should therefore not be treated as necessarily
communicating directly the views also of the author, as even in works where the author
appears to sympathize with his narrator (such as in Im Westen) this harmony might not
be absolute. B?umer, for instance, deliberately suppresses his feeling of guilt about
47
killing Duval, and states: ?Krieg ist Krieg schlie?lich? (Im Westen, p. 156). This,
however, does not reflect Remarque's sentiment (he is taking an active pacifist stand by
writing a war novel), but serves to show B?umer?s inner conflict and also forces the
reader to question the validity of his excuse. It is therefore an understatement that Im
Westen is told ?primarily from B?umer?s point of view [my emphasis]?.
10
 The
perspective is, in fact, solely and consistently that of B?umer until the closing paragraph
? a consistency which contrasts with many of the other first- person fictional narratives
of the Great War.
11
 As already stated, provided that the narrator is consistent in his or
her role, it remains solely this narrator?s point-of-view that is presented. A first-person
account can thus only be said to be told from the author?s perspective when the work is
autobiographical. This is not the case with any of Remarque's novels, although a
number of the books incorporate fictionalized versions of people and experiences from
the author?s own life.
  The question of the relationship between author and narrator also affects other areas of
the novel?s form aside from the perspective. Whereas the overall spatial structure, such
as chapter lengths and their division points, is likely to be understood as Remarque's
personal undertaking along with the proportion of dialogue to narrative, other formal
aspects, such as, the register, imagery and the general tone, are, it can be argued, those
of the first-person narrator. The latter points are thus, paradoxically, not directly the
product of Remarque, but are rather side products determined by the narrator the author
has chosen for his work. Having given life to B?umer in Im Westen, Remarque thus
retreats to the background and it is solely B?umer?s voice and views which are heard.
  In Im Westen, B?umer?s story is preceded by the novel?s famous short prologue.
Dieses Buch soll weder eine Anklage noch ein Bekenntnis
sein. Es soll nur den Versuch machen, ?ber eine
48
Generation zu berichten, die vom Kriege zerst?rt wurde ?
auch wenn sie seinen Granaten entkam (Im Westen, p. 9).
  The opening words, ?[d]ieses Buch? [my emphasis], initially gives the reader the
impression that the author is the speaker. The prologue?s last line has thus often been
criticized because it claims that the novel will report about those who were destroyed by
the war ?? auch wenn sie seinen Granaten entkam?.
12
 This objective is, however, not
met in the novel, as all the significant characters die, and, moreover, the novel
concludes before the end of the war. Even if some of the chief characters had been alive
at the conclusion of the work, it would have remained uncertain whether they would
survive the war. That Remarque should have overlooked such an obvious contradiction
between his prologue and actual plot seems unlikely. Firstly, he worked, as Thomas F.
Schneider has shown, at the novel for a lot longer than the mere six weeks which both
Remarque and Ullstein Publishing House maintained in the advertising campaign for Im
Westen.
13
 Secondly, Remarque continued to add changes to the manuscript between its
serialization in the Vossische Zeitung (from 10 November to 9 December 1928) and its
publication in book form (31 January 1929). Although he omitted, for instance, two
other lines from the prologue, he retained the seemingly incompatible closing lines,
quoted above.
14
 Richard Littlejohns regards the inclusion of the last lines as an
indication that ?war itself, paradoxically, is not the focus of interest in Im Westen?, but
that the novel is rather ?about the difficulty of coping with the subsequent peace?.
15
 Also
Thomas F. Schneider points to the novel?s theme of the problematic reintegration of
soldiers into Weimar society, but sees this reading of Im Westen in context of
Remarque's originally intended trilogy about the war and its aftermath.
16
 There is,
however, no certainty that the prefatory statement is voiced by Remarque and therefore
no reason why its perspective should not be reconsidered, although this, of course,
49
could trigger an entirely different debate on intentional fallacy. The introductory
statement could in fact alternatively be read as a foreword composed by B?umer as a
prologue to his personal account of the war. Despite the fact that critics generally
interpret the prefatory statement as Remarque?s introduction to his novel, the idea that it
should be part of B?umer?s narrative seems in many respects more fitting. For obvious
reasons, the novel?s closing paragraph cannot be B?umer?s since it describes his death.
However, aside from this part, the entire story, including the prologue, could be
B?umer?s, not verbalized, but written account of the war; an account noted down in the
course of the war, as for instance Renn?s protagonist does in the novel Krieg. Keeping a
diary was a popular activity amongst First World War soldiers, and particularly during
the early war years many such personal accounts, in which the authenticity generally
weighed heavier than their aesthetic value, were published.
17
 Murdoch too has brought
attention to ?B?umer?s fictitious diary?,
18
 and even in the parody, Vor Troja nichts
Neues, the protagonist, a curious mixture of B?umer and Remarque, is keeping a diary,
which he intends to publish after the war. This is further supported by the fact that
Remarque entitled one of the early manuscripts of Im Westen: Im Westen nichts Neues:
Aus den Tageb?chern des Freiwilligen Georg B?umer.
19
 The impression that B?umer?s
narrative could be a diary is reinforced when, at times, the story (despite its use of the
present tense) appears to be told, not as it unfolds, but with hindsight. Having killed the
French soldier, Duval, in a bomb crater in no man?s land, for instance, B?umer is unable
to expose himself and escape until after dark the following evening. When he is
eventually able to crawl out of cover, he is focusing entirely on relocating the German
trenches, and he explains: ?Den Toten habe ich vergessen? (Im Westen, p. 155). Yet,
although he narrates in the present tense, such an assertion can be made solely on
reflection. It is thus only possible to report on a forgotten or repressed matter when done
50
in retrospect ? in this case perhaps when noting down the event in a personal diary or
journal. A similar time gap is detectable in B?umer?s acknowledgement of his own
insincerity when promising to support Duval?s family financially, if only he himself
should survive. In reality he attempts to bribe fate: ?[E]ine kleine Hinterlist, da? man
nachher immer noch erst einmal sehen k?nne? (Im Westen, p. 153). He is thus writing or
stating this after the actual event has taken place. In relation to the front-line diary by
Hermann L?ns, Murdoch has noted a similar characteristic: ?Lengthier passages in
which L?ns describes being under fire were written immediately after the event,
although in the present tense. [?] [I]t was presumably written the day or night after the
events, but as if they were happening at the moment of writing.?
20
  That B?umer enjoys writing can be gathered from his reference to a play, Saul, which
he had been working on prior to the war. Nevertheless, due to the extremity of the
situation, B?umer (similarly to Renn in Krieg) has difficulties describing the war
experience: ?[m]an kann das nicht niederschreiben? (Im Westen, p. 126). The phrasing is
unusual and a more natural wording would be that he cannot ?put into words? or
?explain? the situation. The fact that he specifically points to the impossibility of writing
this down therefore suggests that this is exactly what he is attempting to do.
  There are further indicators pointing to the novel?s introduction being part of B?umer?s
story. Aware that the war must be drawing to an end, B?umer concludes his account by
considering how to resume civilian life after the war. Naturally, as far as he is
concerned, his story is that of a soldier who participated in, but nevertheless survived,
the war. Being the only surviving member of a whole school class B?umer?s (written
diary?) story is therefore an account of ?eine Generation [?], die vom Kriege zerst?rt
wurde ? auch wenn sie seinen Granaten entkam?; that is, until the very last paragraph, of
which B?umer, of course, remains unknowing. The prologue therefore correlates better
51
with B?umer?s narrative than with Remarque's novel as a whole. In other words, the
prologue loses its demand for a subsequent novel, only if written without knowledge of
B?umer?s death. B?umer, of course, is unaware of this, whereas Remarque is not.
Remarque stated in an interview by Friedrich Luft that he had found the writing of the
sequel, Der Weg to be ?notwendig?.
21
 It has generally been presumed that Remarque
saw the necessity to write Der Weg in order to meet the objectives stated in the
introductory lines of Im Westen. However, the ?Notwendigkeit? of the sequel can also be
viewed in the context of B?umer?s unexpected death, and to B?umer it is unexpected as
?[j]eder Soldat bleibt nur durch tausend Zuf?lle am Leben. Und jeder Soldat glaubt und
vertraut dem Zufall? (Im Westen, p. 75). As the war (and the novel) draws to an end,
B?umer is already looking to the future and he imagines life ? his own life ? in
peacetime. It may be at this point ? having already written his account ? that B?umer
composes the prefatory statement, perhaps with possible publication in mind. The war is
practically over, and this could explain why he applies the past tense to his short
introductory words, when he speaks of those who ?entkam? (Im Westen, p. 9). Then he
dies and as a result a part of his prologue becomes untenable. B?umer has previously
been ruled out as a possible narrator of the prefatory statement, but the arguments above
show not only that this is a possible option, but that the introductory words do, in fact,
become more fitting and logical if read as B?umer?s.
  Although the presentation of war in Im Westen consistently reflects the viewpoint of
B?umer, the novel continues beyond the conclusion of his account, and following
B?umer?s death an external, though not omniscient, narrator reports this event in a
single paragraph on the novel?s final page. Initially this nameless narrator and
Remarque could be interpreted as one and the same person, but if the two are regarded
as identical, the question then arises as to why Remarque, who after all has created
52
B?umer and thus is all-knowing in respect to this character, expresses uncertainty
through the use of the subjunctive. B?umer is said to look ?als w?re er beinahe
zufrieden damit, da? es so gekommen war? [my emphasis] (Im Westen, p. 197), and
ergo the third person narrator is revealed to know only the external circumstances. The
feeling of uncertainty is further strengthened by the insertion of the adverb ?beinahe?
(Im Westen, p. 197).
22
 The identity of this narrator remains unclear, but the limitations
to the perspective create an important barrier between B?umer and the reader. It
highlights B?umer?s insignificance against the background of the millions of other
soldiers who were killed during the war.
By letting his narrator die ? ironically at the end of the war ? Remarque stresses the
indiscriminate nature and pointlessness of war. Hans-Harald M?ller, though, sees
another explanation to B?umer?s death. He suggests that Remarque not only attempts to
justify his own failure as a writer (prior to writing Im Westen), but symbolically tries to
erase this feeling of failure by killing the novel?s protagonist.
23
 M?ller?s interpretation
can only be viewed as an example of over-analysis. Had B?umer, however, survived he
would, in all certainty, not have entitled his story Im Westen nichts Neues, as this title
only gains meaning following B?umer?s death. Admittedly, there are a few, albeit well-
disguised, references to the title within B?umer?s narrative.
24
 The title is nevertheless
predominantly tied to the anonymous narrator?s final remark, and serves to stress the
contrast between the irreversible impact which dying has on the individual and those
emotionally attached to him (including the reader), and the insignificance of that
individual in the eyes of the authorities who regard the front soldier merely as canon
fodder or Material in the Materialschlacht.
53
  Although Im Westen is a fictional account of the First World War, a statement by
Kaiser Wilhelm II, quoted in Edlef K?ppen?s Heeresbericht, reflects a detached attitude
and lack of concern for his individual subject:
Ich glaube, da? wir [?] wissen [?] da? wir lieber unsre
gesamten 18 Armeekorps und 42 Millionen Einwohner
auf der Walstatt liegen lassen, als da? wir einen einzigen
Stein von dem, was Mein Vater und der Prinz Friedrich
Karl errungen haben, abtreten.
25
  Against such figures, the loss of a few individuals on a comparatively quiet day on the
Western front would certainly not seem worth reporting. In one of the early manuscript-
versions of Im Westen which, as Schneider has shown, had a more explicitly pacifist
tone, B?umer condemns the exploitation of the ordinary soldier: ?Sie wissen es, sage ich
dir, sie wissen alles ganz genau, sie kennen Krieg und Lazarette und Massengr?ber, sie
wissen, das wir alle nichts anderes sind als Kanonenfutter f?r eine Anzahl Ehrgeiziger
und Verdiener und Quatschk?pfe ? und sie h?ren trotzdem nicht auf?.
26
 Although based
on the final and less direct version of the novel, the 1930 film production of Im Westen
likewise attacks the attitude of the Kaiser. Here, his absence from the front has not gone
unnoticed by Tjaden. When the soldiers (in both the book and the film) speculate about
the origins of the war, Albert Kropp explains that war begins with one country or people
offending another, but Tjaden humorously points out: ?Wenn das so ist, w?re ich nicht
hier ? ich f?hle mich n?mlich nicht beleidigt! [?] Ich gehe nach Hause. Er [der Kaiser]
ist schon dort!?
27
Remarque chooses to highlight the wording of the military report by entitling his
novel: Im Westen nichts Neues. Viewed in context of the entire work, the title stresses
the fact that B?umer is a mere representative of the front-line soldier, and although the
novel depicts war only from his perspective, neither his story, nor his death, are
54
extraordinary. He is just one of millions of men who experienced the battlefields of the
war. On the basis of Remarque's choice of title, it must therefore be assumed that
Remarque regarded the loss of individualism and the insignificance to which the life of
the individual soldier was reduced as a central theme of his work.
  The release of Im Westen was followed by a considerable amount of literary responses,
mainly satires and parodies, which generally communicated their connection with
Remarque's work through titles such as Im Osten nichts Neues; Im Westen doch Neues;
Im Westen wohl was Neues and Vor Troja nichts Neues.
28
 The latter ? possibly inspired
by an earlier parody, Triumph des Thersites, of Jaroslav Ha_ek?s novel, Die Abenteuer
des braven Soldaten Schwejk
29
 ? was humorously published under the pseudonym Emil
Marius Requark.
30
 Vor Troja mirrors Remarque's theme of disregard for the life of the
individual, and particularly that of the common soldier. In a reported, recent battle
apparently only low-ranking combatants, but no warriors of considerable status or fame,
have fallen. Chief Commander Agamemnon and his brother and chief of the general
staff, Menelaos, are, as a result, uncertain how to phrase their military communiqu?.
They discuss the dilemma:
?Ein paar Muskoten sind auch get?tet und ein paar
Verwundete ins Lazarett eingeliefert worden??
?Muskoten interessieren mich nicht. Die kann ich in
meinem Heeresbericht nicht brauchen. Ist denn keiner von
unseren Helden ausger?ckt??
?Nein [?]?
31
Finally they word their report: ?[n]ichts Neues vor Troja?.
32
  Additionally to showing the army leaders? indifference towards the life of the common
soldier, the above dialogue-extract indicates mockery and questioning of the Heldentum
of those who are credited with (or indeed themselves take credit for) any Heldenmut
55
exhibited on the battlefield. The heroes Agamemnon speaks of relate particularly to
B?umer?s presentation of corporal Himmelsto? whose fear, however, proves to exceed
that of his former recruits (Im Westen, p. 95). In an attempt by the Germans to cross
enemy lines, B?umer suddenly sees Himmelsto?, who has sought shelter in a crater
whilst the other soldiers continue to charge towards the enemy. B?umer is furious. He
shakes Himmelsto? and shouts at him, despite the higher rank of the latter. It is,
however, not the verbal attack itself, but the pictures within B?umer?s language that
truly show his different views of the corporal and the common front soldiers. Both are
likened to the same animal, a dog, but whereas Himmelsto? is negatively described as
?ein K?ter? (Im Westen, p. 95), B?umer?s sympathy for the young recruits is reflected in
his description of them as ?brav[e], arm[e] Hunde? (Im Westen, p. 94). Many of the
comparisons in Im Westen are connected through common objects or themes which
extend over a few paragraphs. The dog-comparison, for instance, continues following
Himmelsto??s first front battle. He has realized the reality of war, and B?umer says of
him: ?Seine Schnauze hat er verloren? (Im Westen, p. 99).
  Aside from parodying Himmelsto?, the heroes in Agamemnon?s army also represent
the older men in B?umer?s hometown. Similarly to the Greek heroes, they do not
directly participate in the war, and yet they speak as if they are actively involved and
indeed understand the war to a greater degree than the front soldiers. On home leave
B?umer encounters, for example, his former teacher of German, who asks: ?Na, wie
steht es drau?en. Furchtbar, furchtbar, nicht wahr? Ja, es ist schrecklich, aber wir
m?ssen eben durchhalten [my emphasis]? (Im Westen, p. 117). The use of direct speech
gives a feel of objectivity and although this seeming neutrality is somewhat deceptive in
that the passages of direct speech are, in reality, also narrated by B?umer, the reader
feels that s/he is being shown, rather than being explained, the sentiment of the older
56
generation.
33
 Naturally, the reader is encouraged to take a particular stance, but through
its objective feel, the use of direct speech lessens the reader?s impression that an opinion
is being imposed upon him or her. Although B?umer at that point recognizes the
ignorance and unrealistic expectations of his elders, he explains how, prior to the war,
he and his school friends believed in the rules and judgement of their elders. As a result,
B?umer?s former class teacher, Kantorek, was able to manipulate the entire class to
volunteer for the army. Again through the use of direct speech, Kantorek is shown to
have tactically utilized the language to achieve this: ?Ihr geht doch mit,
Kameraden??(Im Westen, p. 17). Since Kantorek himself is not going to the front, his
use of ?mit?, which seems to imply his own participation, is merely a tool to pressurize
the pupils; likewise his fake use of ?Kameraden?. The equality implied by this word is
clearly invalid in the hierarchic relationship between the teacher and the class members.
The insincerity is, at the time, not recognized by the pupils: ?dar?ber machten wir uns
damals noch keine Gedanken? (Im Westen, p. 17); it is, however, obvious to the reader,
who consequently sympathizes with the na?ve and exploited pupils. In this manner, the
young front soldiers come across as innocent pawns in the hands of a few
Kriegsgewinnler and zealously patriotic members of the older generation. Despite their
readiness to self-sacrifice, the soldiers are treated, not as an army of individuals, but
simply as an army.
  The insignificance of the individual soldier is typically mirrored in the nationalistic
war novels, but in these works the soldiers perceive their loss of individuality as
necessary and as a positive step towards a stronger Germany. In Wir fahren den Tod,
Thor Goote?s protagonist, Lingen, states, for instance: ?Wir sind ja nur
Nebens?chlichkeiten im ganzen Geschehen. Das Volk als Ganzes ist doch alles.?
34
Franz Schauwecker?s Der feurige Weg similarly highlights this depersonalization: ?Das
57
freie Leben der Pers?nlichkeit ist weggefegt. Ich bin nicht mehr ich, sondern F?silier
Sowieso. [?] Ein Gemeinschaftsziel erhebt sich starr.
35
 [I]ch bin nicht mehr ich, ich bin
ja F?silier Sowieso. Einer von Millionen. Kamerad. Soldat.?
36
  In Im Westen, on the
contrary, B?umer?s tone is negative and indicates that he does not regard the assumed
group identity as constructive: ?Es ist, als ob wir fr?her einmal Geldst?cke
verschiedener L?nder gewesen w?ren; man hat sie eingeschmolzen, und alle haben jetzt
denselben Pr?gestempel. [?] Wir sind Soldaten und erst sp?ter auf eine sonderbare und
versch?mte Weise noch Einzelmenschen? (Im Westen, p. 183). Indicated already in its
title, Ernst Wiechert?s anti-war novel Jedermann: Geschichte eines Namenlosen also
contains references to the soldiers? absorption into a ?Gleichma?? or ?Vielheit?.
37
 Like
B?umer, Johannes in Jedermann feels his personal identity threatened: ??Vielleicht mu?
man morgen auch dort sitzen?, denkt Johannes, und unter seinen F??en gleichsam f?hlt
er, da? er eben ?man? gedacht hat, nicht ?ich?.?
38
  Johannes clearly regards the external
uniformity of the soldiers as a threat and a deliberate indoctrinatory measure undertaken
by those in charge in order to build up a feeling of togetherness and loyalty:
Er vertauschte die Gesichter und die Kopfbedeckungen,
und nichts ?nderte sich. Er erkannte, da? es ein
Massengesicht war, und in dieser Erkenntnis ging ihm
unvermittelt der Sinn der Uniform auf, des Helmes, des
Gleichschrittes. [?] ?Man mu? das Gesicht aus der
Uniform retten?, dachte er. [I]ch mu? lernen, mich zu
verlassen, mein Haus abzuschlie?en und auf eine Reise zu
gehen?
39
  Despite the fact that B?umer, in comparison, appears to be relatively comfortable
within the group, it soon becomes clear, not least through the characteristics B?umer
highlights in relation to the other characters, that the strong, family-like bond which has
developed between the soldiers and which has remoulded them from many individuals
58
into one entity, is based on their personal wish to survive the war, rather than on
ideological principles. To B?umer the close Kameradschaft makes up an essential
physical and psychological support network. The soldiers share, for instance, what food
they can acquire, and when B?umer in no-man?s-land gets disorientated and feels a rush
of panic, the sudden, low voices, which he believes to be those of his comrades,
extinguish his fear and are described as ?das St?rkste und Sch?tzendste, was es
?berhaupt gibt? (Im Westen, p. 145).  This strong bond is conveyed, perhaps
subconsciously, by B?umer as he narrates the novel not only in the first person singular,
but, for a large part, also in the first person plural. As a matter of fact, the novel opens
with the pronoun ?wir?; as do chapter three, four, nine and eleven. It is thus only on the
novel?s second page that B?umer unveils his own name and age which he casually
interposes in the midst of sketchy descriptions of the other members of his immediate
group. This strengthens the impression that B?umer?s personal identity is given no
precedence, but that it is fused with that of the group from within which he narrates at
the outset of the novel.
40
  Throughout Im Westen, B?umer?s wir does not consistently refer to one specific group
of people, but rather changes according to the content of the narrative. Although
B?umer does not generally specify who wir are, it can (despite Harald Kloiber?s claim
of the opposite
41
) on the whole be concluded from the context.
42
  There are thus
instances where this plural pronoun embraces merely B?umer and one other person,
such as when he and Kat roast a goose, whereas at other times it encompasses B?umer?s
former school friends; his immediate group of comrades on the front; the entire
company; the German army or even soldiers universally. At a single occasion ?wir?
applies to members of society?s lower social spectrum: ?[S]o sind wir, so sind sie, die
armen Leute? (Im Westen, p. 136), but aside from this statement, the novel is largely
59
devoid of social comments. As one of the major themes of the novel is the wide chasm
between generations, there are naturally also incidents of ?wir? pertaining to young
people, and particularly those who are participating in the war. However, as both
Travers and Murdoch have noted, the narrative perspective becomes gradually more
individualistic as the novel progresses; shown through an increase in the first-person
singular paralleled with a decrease in the use of wir.
43
 B?umer?s utilization of personal
pronouns is significant in that it follows and reveals his psychological development (or
deterioration), and so the changing singular and plural perspective serves as an
important narrative tool in Im Westen.
  Structurally, Im Westen is characterized by short, self-contained episodes. Some critics
suggest that the apparent lack of causality between the individual episodes makes it
possible to arrange them in any arbitrary order.
44
 However, although there appears to be
no causality in the plot from chapter to chapter,
45
 B?umer?s psychological decline and
his gradual retreat from the group ? underlined, for instance, through manipulation of
the pronouns ? would be lost if the order was changed radically. In his elaborate
examination of the structure of Im Westen, Kloiber has indeed shown that the sequence
of the episodes is far from random.  Rather, there appears to be three cycles consisting,
roughly, of times of rest; descriptions of the misery of war; and incidences of death. On
the basis of his study, Kloiber concludes that Im Westen is an ?Episodenroman, der mit
einer komplexen, genau durchdachten Gro?struktur das Interesse des Lesers auf das
Ende des Romans hin ausrichtet?.
46
When focusing on B?umer and his psychological development, however, Im Westen
divides into two parts, where part one (chapter one to ten) occupies more than ninety
percent of the work?s space. In this part B?umer describes, mainly from within the
group, the experience of war through a mixture of relatively cheerful episodes as well as
60
very serious ones. Part two, on the other hand, consists only of chapter eleven and
twelve, but the shortness of this part serves, in effect, to accentuate B?umer?s
psychological degeneration and gradual withdrawnness.  In contrast to the many
specific incidents presented in the first ten chapters, the second part describes war more
generally and almost constitutes a summary of the preceding ten chapters; only, the
occasional moments of vivacity, found in part one, have disappeared. Part two therefore
includes only a few specific episodes depicting the terrible manner in which a number
of B?umer?s fellow soldiers find their end. In contrast to the elaborate presentation of
the dying Kemmerich at the outset of the work, the deaths occurring in part two are
described succinctly and with relatively little pathos. Death has become an accepted and
virtually expected part of everyday life: ?Seit zwei Jahren war er bei uns, ohne da? er
verwundet wurde, da mu?te ja endlich etwas passieren? (Im Westen, p. 190). Only the
cause of death varies: ?Ruhr, Grippe, Typhus ? W?rgen, Verbrennen, Tod. Graben,
Lazarett, Massengrab ? mehr M?glichkeiten gibt es nicht? (Im Westen, p. 190). The
occurrences of death therefore accelerate as the novel moves into part two. This is,
however, equally a result of the general picture B?umer at this point gives of the war.
Whereas the individual episodes of the novel?s first part stretch over limited time
periods such as a week, a day, a night, a few hours or perhaps merely minutes, in part
two, time speeds up and assumes the same general characteristic as B?umer?s
description of the war. ?Es war Winter, als ich ankam?; ?Die Monaten r?cken weiter?;
?einige Regenwochen liegen hinter uns?; ?Sommer 1918?; ?Es ist Herbst? (Im Westen, p.
183, 191, 191, 196) . In a paradoxical manner time appears to accelerate and yet to have
stopped: ?wir z?hlen die Wochen nicht mehr?; ?diese Tanks sind Maschinen, ihre
Kettenb?nder laufen endlos wie der Krieg [my emphasis]? (Im Westen, p. 183, 190).
61
  In chapter eleven and twelve ? or what might be referred to as part two ? B?umer?s
emotional and physical exhaustion is mirrored in the narrative, which compared to the
rest of the novel, becomes taciturn and more reflective. Whereas B?umer at the opening
of the novel identified with his group, he now withdraws from this position. He is, of
course, to a certain degree forced to detach himself, as the members of the group
gradually die, but he does not establish a new support network. In fact, in part two,
B?umer rejects the men?s adaption to the existence on the front and thus, in a way, also
the comradeship between them: ?es [das Leben] hat uns mit Stumpfheit durchsetzt,
damit wir nicht zerbrechen vor dem Grauen, das uns bei klarem, bewu?tem Denken
?berfallen w?rde, - es hat in uns den Kameradschaftssinn geweckt, damit wir dem
Abgrund der Verlassenheit entgehen [?]. Yet, B?umer proceeds to state that this
adaption is ?k?nstlich? (Im Westen, p. 184); a theme which Remarque takes up again in
Der Weg.
  B?umer?s solitude in the novel?s last two chapters is highlighted through his use of the
past tense when he explains the deaths of M?ller, Bertinck and Leer as well as the
disappearance of Detering. These characters are thus not present with B?umer in part
two, but merely figures in his memory. It is really only Kat who still interacts with
B?umer, so when he too dies, B?umer?s introversion and individualization process
becomes complete.
  The sequence in which the characters die or otherwise get separated from B?umer
seems to be determined by their relationship to the latter. The tie between B?umer and
his former two classmates Kemmerich and Behm, for instance, is not described as
particularly strong. Their function in the novel is predominantly to make up numbers
and to depict the pointless death of very young people, but they have no real influence
on B?umer?s life on the front. These two characters therefore die first. B?umer?s two
62
closest friends, Albert and Kat, however, are the last two to get injured or die before
B?umer himself is killed. In this manner death moves ever closer to B?umer as the
novel progresses.
  The character of Kat plays an important part in the novel. With his forty years and
valuable experience in warfare, he has come to fulfil the roles of both father and mentor
to B?umer and many of the other recruits. His death is consequently a severe loss to
B?umer, who, following this event, for a moment cannot grasp that the surrounding
world does not collapse. He has lost his only remaining friend and he feels truly alone
for the first time.
47
 However, alongside all the other horrors he has witnessed, B?umer
suppresses his grief for Kat. Earlier in the novel, B?umer explains, how the experiences
of war sink ?wie Steine? inside him, but also that they are only dormant and will have to
be dealt with later (Im Westen, p. 99, 101.) For the moment he must focus on his own
survival. ?Jede Lebens?u?erung darf nur der Daseinserhaltung dienen [?] [a]lles andere
ist verbannt, weil es unn?tig Kraft verzehren w?rde? (Im Westen, p. 184.) Nevertheless,
after Kat?s death he has to direct all his will at facing an existence alone. He does this
only with difficulty: ?Ich stehe langsam auf [my emphasis]? (Im Westen, p. 195).
Remarque clearly considered the impact of including the adjverb, ?langsam?, because it
was only added in the course of his revision of an early manuscript.
48
 It is thus not due
to indifference that B?umer states: ?Es ist alles wie sonst. Nur der Landwehrmann
Stanislaus Katczinsky ist gestorben? (Im Westen, p. 195). Rather, he finds this
information almost incomprehensible. His choice of phrasing is, of course, also an
indirect foreboding of the lack of attention his own death will stir.
  B?umer?s particular appreciation of his friendship to Kat and Albert is communicated
through exploitation of the distinction in meaning between the terms Kamerad and
Freund. Whereas all the front soldiers in Im Westen are referred to as Kameraden, most
63
of them are connected only through external circumstances ? in this case the war. The
expression therefore assumes a somewhat impersonal meaning. In comparison, the term
Freund suggests a stronger bond that exceeds the war, and whereas a Kamerad can be
substituted, a Freund is much harder to replace. The difference in closeness which the
two terms imply, is, as stated, utilized by B?umer. When having to leave Albert behind
in hospital, B?umer says: ?Der Abschied von meinem Freunde Albert Kropp ist schwer?
(Im Westen, p. 181). Rather than lengthy explanations, the inclusion of ?meinem
Freunde? expresses concisely, yet clearly, their solid friendship. In relation to Kat,
B?umer does equally not state explicitly their close relationship, but the warmth with
which he speaks of the older soldier reveals this unequivocally.
49
  Despite their mutual friendship with B?umer, Albert and Kat are opposites. B?umer
and the former are the same age and both have a school education. Kat, on the other
hand, is twice their age, is a cobbler of profession and possesses a degree of life
experience not obtainable from books, but vital to survival on the front. These two
people provide B?umer with a sense of stability in the midst of the chaotic and uprooted
existence they lead on the front. His friendship to Albert goes back to his school days
and thus represents to him the carefreeness of their lives prior to the war. Through
Albert, B?umer retains a connection to the na?ve and untroubled world of his school
days, which makes their friendship of great importance to B?umer?s mental wellbeing.
B?umer?s close relationship with Kat, on the other hand, centres much more on physical
survival. Kat is said to have a sixth sense for shell fire and a nose for tracking down
food, and he evokes in B?umer the feeling of being under a father?s protection: ?[I]ch
liebe ihn, seine Schultern, seine eckige, gebeugte Gestalt ? und zu gleicher Zeit sehe ich
hinter ihm W?lder und Sterne, und eine gute Stimme sagt Worte, die mir Ruhe geben?
(Im Westen, p. 72). B?umer?s sense of peace around Kat is also conveyed in the simile:
64
?[Kats] Schatten f?llt ?ber mich wie eine Heimat? (Im Westen, p. 73). In contrast to this
stout picture of Kat as a provider of food and security, B?umer refers in the same
episode to himself as a soldier ?der mit seinen gro?en Stiefeln und seinem Koppel und
seinem Brotbeutel klein unter dem hohen Himmel den Weg geht, der vor ihm liegt [my
emphases]? (Im Westen, p. 72). The large boots and the deep sky contrast and accentuate
B?umer?s description of himself as ?klein?. In the context of the picture given of Kat,
B?umer thus comes to liken a vulnerable child who is watched over by Kat and who
arouses sympathy in the reader.
  B?umer?s search for a stable point of focus psychologically reveals itself on several
accounts in the course of the work. B?umer describes the front as ?ein unheimlicher
Strudel?, and his inner struggle to resist being drawn in by this whirlpool shows itself
when he physically clings to objects such as a pillow, his rifle or the window frame of
the train carrying him home on leave. These items momentarily substitute the stability
B?umer?s life is lacking but which he needs in order to cope with the frightening
experience of the front. Lingen reacts in a similar fashion in Wir fahren den Tod.
Landing in shell fire whilst driving an ammunition wagon, he explains: ?Ich klammere
mich mit den H?nden ganz fest, nicht weil ich f?rchte herunterzufallen, sondern so, wie
ich es beim Zahnarzt tue. Ich will nur meiner sicher sein. [?] Ich verrutsche meine
H?nde immer wieder, obwohl sie gut liegen.? After the attack ceases, he relaxes: ?Ich
habe das Gef?hl, als seien Tiere und Menschen nun entspannt. Jetzt kann ich auch
meine H?nde l?sen und mich zurechtr?cken.?
50
  Leonhard Frank applies the same technique in Der Mensch ist gut. A father who is
monitoring the war situation from home through the propagandistic newspapers refuses
to accept the very different first hand accounts of the war depicted in his son?s letters:
?Er [der Vater] klammerte sich an seine Zeitung an, las die neueste Siegesnachricht des
65
Kriegsberichterstatters: in sein sofort wieder beruhigtes Gehirn lie? sich ein Ausschnitt
leichenbedeckter Erde nieder?. However, his wife points to the dissimilarities between
the version of events as written in the paper and the son?s letters respectively, so the
father?s grip of the paper tightens ? both physically and psychologically: ??Das ist ja
Unsinn.? Der Vater packte die Zeitung fester [?]?.
51
  B?umer?s visit to the French women?s house also shows his search for some form of
stability. In contrast to the prostitutes the soldiers are said to ordinarily visit, the three
French girls represent civilian life. As B?umer and his friends have to swim across a
river to reach the house of the women, they arrive wearing only their boots. Not being
dressed in a uniform alights in B?umer a sensation of having become a person or
individual, rather than being an anonymous soldier. As with the rifle, the pillow and the
window frame, B?umer?s wish to gain and retain the stability and safety the women
signify, is communicated through his body language towards one of the women: ?Dann
aber f?hle ich die Lippen der Schmalen, Dunklen, und dr?nge mich ihnen entgegen, ich
schlie?e die Augen und m?chte alles damit ausl?schen, Krieg und Grauen und
Gemeinheit [?]. Und um so tiefer presse ich mich in die Arme, die mich umfassen,
vielleicht geschieht ein Wunder? (Im Westen, p. 107). But all of B?umer?s attempts to
create any sense of stability in his uprooted existence fail, and eventually even Albert
and Kat, the two central points in B?umer?s life, are eliminated. However, although
B?umer feels ?so allein und so ohne Erwartung?, he manages to find the strength within
himself to face his uncertain future. His resolution is detectable from his action: ?ich
stehe auf? (Im Westen, p. 197). It is almost as if, for the first time, he looks beyond the
war and, physically as well as psychologically, considers his future way back to
ordinary, civilian life. The physical and emotional exhaustion he signalled following
66
Kat?s death by standing up ?langsam? has alleviated. At this stage B?umer?s introversion
appears to proceed, as Murdoch has suggested, to a subconscious level:
52
Ich bin sehr ruhig. M?gen die Monate und Jahre kommen,
sie nehmen mir nichts mehr, sie k?nnen mir nichts mehr
nehmen. Ich bin so allein und so ohne Erwartung, da? ich
ihnen entgegensehen kann ohne Furcht. Das Leben, das
mich durch diese Jahre trug, ist noch in meinen H?nden
und Augen. Ob ich es ?berwunden habe, wei? ich nicht.
Aber solange es da ist, wird es sich seinen Weg suchen,
mag dieses, das in mir ?ich? sagt, wollen oder nicht (Im
Westen, p. 197).
  The atmosphere is calm. The conscious B?umer who has so far acted as narrator,
appears to be strangely absent, as if he is simply a shell surrounding another B?umer,
the actual B?umer, the life-force within him. Using B?umer, the shell, as a mouthpiece,
the id reveals to the reader that this individual has the willpower to try to overcome the
war experience. When an anonymous third person narrator then announces that B?umer
died in October only weeks before the end of the war, B?umer is therefore described as
looking only ?als w?re er beinahe zufrieden damit, da? es so gekommen war [my
emphasis]? (Im Westen, p. 197).
In Der Weg, the soldiers who survive the war continue to live in its shadow as they
attempt to process their experiences. At the end of Im Westen, B?umer?s subconscious
appears to have started this process already. He is bruised physically as well as
mentally, but the last paragraph of his narrative unveils a buried, and perhaps to
B?umer?s conscious self unknown, source of strength. Like Birkholz in Der Weg, he
might thus eventually have been able to adjust to civilian life, had he survived. This
makes his death doubly ironic: having endured years of physical and mental strain, he
not only dies at the closing stages of the war, but his prospects for overcoming the
67
experience mentally had he not been killed also appears to have been relatively good,
unlike many of the soldiers who actually did survive.
  As described thus far, B?umer?s individualization process is accompanied by his
utilization of the personal pronouns ich and wir, but there are also examples of B?umer
narrating in the neutral and more generalizing man. When in hospital his change in
narrative perspective from the first to the third person has a distancing effect:
Man kann nicht begreifen, da? ?ber so zerrissenen
Leibern noch Menschengesichtern sind, in denen das
Leben seinen allt?glichen Fortgang nimmt. Und dabei ist
dies nur ein einziges Lazarett, nur eine einzige Station ?
es gibt hunderttausende in Deutschland, Hunderttausende
in Frankreich, Hunderttausende in Ru?land. Wie sinnlos
ist alles, was je geschrieben, getan, gedacht wurde, wenn
so etwas m?glich ist! Es mu? alles gelogen und belanglos
sein, wenn die Kultur von Jahrtausenden nicht einmal
verhindern konnte, da? diese Str?me von Blut vergossen
wurden, da? diese Kerker der Qualen zu
hunderttausenden existieren. Erst das Lazarett zeigt, was
der Krieg ist (Im Westen, p. 177.)
Although this extract is narrated by B?umer, his use of man removes the focus from
his person and, in combination with the content of the passage, the reader is zoomed out
from B?umer?s subjective story and is offered a wider view of the consequences of war.
The quoted paragraph is closely linked to the novel?s early description of Kemmerich?s
death, in which B?umer likewise makes use of the more neutral man: ?Man sollte die
ganze Welt an diesem Bette vorbeif?hren und sagen; Das ist Franz Kemmerich,
neunzehneinhalb Jahre alt, er will nicht sterben? (Im Westen, p. 29). When B?umer
therefore, above, accentuates the numerousness of the Lazaretten in Europe, the picture
of Kemmerich on his deathbed transforms, in the mind of the reader, each of the
hundreds of thousands of wounded in Germany, France and Russia into individuals and
innocent victims who, analogously to Kemmerich, do not want to die.
68
The sudden expansion of the view in the above extract is not unique to Remarque, but
is also found in, for instance, Leonhard Frank?s Der Mensch ist gut: ?Wie viele
Schmerzenslager gibt es knapp hinter der Front? Und wie viele in allen St?dten und
St?dtchen des Heimatlandes? Wie viele in Ru?land, Frankreich, England, Italien? Wie
viele Schmerzenslager gibt es in Europa??
53
 Both Frank?s and Remarque?s quotes leave
the reader with a temporary impression of witnessing events from an ever greater
distance. However, whereas Der Mensch ist gut is written from an array of perspectives,
Remarque?s work is showing only B?umer?s view. There is a flicker of omniscience
only when B?umer disappears behind the pronoun man. Subsequently, although Im
Westen is narrated by a single individual, the reader is not allowed to forget that
B?umer, like Kemmerich, is merely one of millions of soldiers who fought and died in
the war.
  In a diary entry from 1929, Harry Graf Kessler reports of a conversation with
Remarque regarding the approach of the latter to the writing process. Remarque?s
explanation suggests that he considered the perspective to constitute the very basis of
his work, but also that he was aware that he could manipulate this aspect to achieve a
specific effect:
Wenn man auf der Eisenbahn fahre, sehe man manchmal
gegen Abend irgendwo, zwischen Sowieso und Sowieso,
einen einsamen Menschen ?ber ein Feld gehen, und gegen
den Himmel erscheine er unendlich gro?. Das sei es! Man
m?sse seine Menschen gegen den Himmel stellen, den
Hintergrund hinter ihnen aufbauen [?]. Das versuche er,
seinen Menschen den Hintergrund des Unendlichen zu
geben.
54
  Remarque clearly focussed on this image when writing not only Im Westen, but also
his subsequent novels. In Im Westen the actual image of a tiny figure against the
69
boundless horizon appears. When Kat and B?umer share the experience of stealing and
roasting a goose, B?umer reflects upon life and, gripped by the atmosphere, his
narrative takes a sentimental turn. This is caused partly through a seeming switch in
perspective:
[U]nd eine gute Stimme sagt Worte, die mir Ruhe geben,
mir, einem Soldaten, der mit seinen gro?en Stiefeln und
seinem Koppel end seinem Brotbeutel klein unter dem
hohen Himmel den Weg geht, der vor ihm liegt, der rasch
vergi?t und nur selten noch traurig ist, der immer
weitergeht unter dem gro?en Nachthimmel [my
emphases] (Im Westen, p. 72).
  In the succeeding paragraph Remarque lets B?umer continue to narrate entirely from
this external position. His description of himself as ?der Soldat mit den gro?en Stiefeln
und dem zugesch?tteten Herzen? certainly amplifies the sentimentality of the passage.
Along with the quiet sadness expressed in the rest of the paragraph, this also serves to
show B?umer?s sensitivity:
Sind am Horizont nicht Blumen und eine Landschaft, die
so still ist, da? er weinen m?chte, der Soldat? Stehen dort
nicht Bilder, die er nicht verloren hat, weil er sie nie
besessen hat, verwirrend, aber dennoch f?r ihn vor?ber?
Stehen dort nicht seine zwanzig Jahre?
B?umer?s indirect reference to his lost youth through imagery, ?Horizont? (lost),
?Blumen?; ?Landschaft?; ?Bilder? (youth), also adds texture locally and thereby creates
variation in the narrative and enhances the reading experience.
55
 The use of the
distancing third-person pronoun again reminds the reader that B?umer is a
representative of an entire generation. The quoted passage is set almost half way
through the novel, and it is the only use of the third-person in the novel. At the very end
70
of the work the narrative is taken up by an external narrator and the third-person
perspective therefore no longer functions as an aesthetic device. Interestingly, whereas
B?umer?s passage switches from a first to a third-person perspective mid-sentence, and
thus leaves no doubt that er refers to B?umer, the identity of the third person singular in
the novels closing paragraph is unspecified.
Er fiel im Oktober 1918, an einem Tage, der so ruhig und
still war an der ganzen Front, da? der Heeresbericht sich
nur auf den Satz beschr?nkte, im Westen sei nichts Neues
zu melden. Er war vor?bergesunken und lag wie
schlafend an der Erde. Als man ihn umdrehte, sah man,
da? er sich nicht lange gequ?lt haben konnte; ? sein
Gesicht hatte einen so gefa?ten Ausdruck, als w?re er
beinahe zufrieden damit, da? es so gekommen war (Im
Westen, p. 197).
  This closing paragraph does not once mention B?umer by name, and ambiguity also
characterizes the identity of those who determine that ?er? has died.  Additional distance
between the dead soldier and the reader is created by a switch from the present to the
past tense. B?umer?s identity has dissolved and he has become just another victim of the
war.
  Murdoch has pointed out that the use of wir implies the existence of a contrasting
group consisting of die anderen.
56
 Their identity naturally depends on who wir are, but
there is generally an implied chasm between the two; a gap characterized by contrast or
opposition. Opposites are, in fact, a common feature in Im Westen in relation to both the
content and the form. The novel depicts, for instance, two generations and their
opposing views. There is also the gap between front and home, past and present, and
life and death. Formally, contrasts occur locally in antonymic expressions such as:
?[w]ir sind verlassen wie Kinder und erfahren wie alte Leute? (Im Westen, p. 90);
?[n]icht viel f?r zwanzig Jahre ? zuviel f?r zwanzig Jahre? (Im Westen, p. 68) and ?wir
71
sind verbunden auf eine einfache und schwere Art? (Im Westen, p. 145). Although
concise, these statements are memorable. The reader is presented with seemingly
conflicting assertions which are nevertheless valid when read in context of the novel.
This encourages the reader to consider the thoughts behind the words and the meanings
of the individual antonyms in their context. By use of antonyms, Remarque therefore
engages the reader in the novel and, as with his utilization of direct speech, discussed
above, leaves the reader with a feeling of having drawn his or her own conclusions
rather than being lectured.
Apart from B?umer, the characters in Im Westen have generally been criticized of
being, what Forster has termed, ?flat?.
57
 Such criticism, however, reflects a lack of
appreciation for the narrative perspective. Since the entire novel, aside from its closing
paragraph, is presented solely from B?umer?s point-of-view, the portrayal of the other
characters depends on B?umer?s relationship to them. A third-person narrator, for
instance, would in all likelihood have mentioned Kat?s civilian profession in the initial
introduction of this character. To B?umer and his account of events on the front,
however, this information is insignificant, and he makes only a fleeting reference to
this: ?Von Beruf ist er, glaube ich, Schuster, aber das tuts nichts zur Sache [?]? (Im
Westen, p. 34). B?umer is neither an omniscient nor an objective narrator and this
naturally affects the characteristics he highlights (or omits) in relation to the other
characters. G?nter Hartung?s criticism of what he perceives to be an incomplete
characterization of Tjaden, Kat and Detering is thus not justifiable.
58
  Im Westen has likewise been criticized for being too explicit in relation to battle and
hospital scenes as well as in episodes referring to defecation or sex. The American
version of the novel, in fact, censored such passages, as these were regarded too graphic
for American readers.
59
 The original version was not published in America until 1975.
72
Im Westen does allude to subjects which to a certain extent have remained taboo, but
when Richard Littlejohns talks of ?unabashed vulgarity about sexual and lavatorial
matters?,
60
 this is hardly a fair comment. He also condemns the ?pleasure which B?umer
and his mates take in the earthy phsysicality [sic] of life at the front? as ?perverse?.
61
However, with suffering and death incessantly reminding the soldiers of their own
mortality, it is understandable that the morals and values of civilized society should fade
to insignificance. Resulting from the constant threat of personal extinction, bodily
functions and physical sensations rather come to assume a symbolic meaning almost of
life itself. B?umer?s reaction to seeing the dying Kemmerich in hospital demonstrates
this:
Meine F??e bewegen sich in den Stiefeln vorw?rts, ich
gehe schneller, ich laufe. [?] Meine Glieder bewegen
sich geschmeidig, ich f?hle meine Gelenke stark, ich
schnaufe und schnaube. Die Nacht lebt, ich lebe. Ich
sp?re Hunger, einen gr??eren als nur vom Magen (Im
Westen, p. 32).
  The intense sensation of joy from simply being alive is not unique to B?umer. In
Remarque?s later novel Liebe Deinen N?chsten in which he depicts European exiles
during the interwar years, the character Steiner tells another, younger refugee about a
particular incident from his time as a First World War soldier. Watching one of his
comrades dying only intensified Steiner?s own hunger to live and hence his hunger for
food; a means of feeling alive physically.
Und w?hrend ich fra? wie ein hei?hungriges Vieh,
selbstvergessen mit Genu? fra?, sah ich ?ber den Rand
der Sch?ssel das Gesicht meines Freundes, die
zerborstenen, aufgerissenen Lippen, ich sah, da? er unter
Qualen starb, zwei Stunden sp?ter war er tot, und ich fra?
73
und es schmeckte mir wie nie in meinem Leben (Liebe
Deinen N?chsten, p. 32).
  Steiner proceeds to explain that it was not an ordinary hunger, but a hunger intensified
by the fact that he, personally, had escaped unharmed. ?Einen halben Meter neben dir
geht f?r einen andern die Welt unter in Gebr?ll und Qual ? und du sp?rst nichts. Das ist
das Elend der Welt!? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 32).
Remarque has given the characteristics of B?umer careful consideration, not least
because of the novel?s inclusion of the delicate topics mentioned above. By creating a
relatively educated narrator, whose lower middle-class background is echoed in his
courteous language, Remarque is able to present the war experience as naturalistically
and yet non-offensively as possible. Thus, although the extreme conditions on the front
gradually eliminate conventional, civilized behaviour amongst the soldiers, including
their inhibitions regarding, for example, defecation, B?umer chooses his vocabulary
with care whenever the narrative touches upon such topics. After the company has
consumed a hearty meal, for example, he says: ?[Kat] l??t einen kr?ftigen Laut h?ren?.
Following this action Kat proclaims: ?Jedes B?hnchen gibt ein T?nchen? (Im Westen, p.
36). Although a harmless response, it nevertheless shows the difference between
B?umer and Kat, as despite the influence of the environment, B?umer remains
somewhat polished and he would not have voiced this unrefined rhyme. Inoffensive
language is likewise used to describe Lewandowski?s fifteen minutes of intimacy with
his wife in a hospital bed whilst the other patients turn their backs and play cards:
?[B]eim Kommi? gibt es darin keine Geheimnisse. Es findet auch keiner etwas dabei
[my emphases]? (Im Westen, p. 178-79).  The other patients? reaction to the wife?s
initial reservations about crawling into her husband?s bed is similarly free from
boorishness: ?Wir grinsen gutm?tig und machen wegwerfende Handbewegungen, was
74
schon dabei sei!? (Im Westen, p. 179). Similarly, B?umer does not quote Tjaden?s coarse
comment to Himmelsto? directly, but explains that Tjaden, unknowingly, cites the
?bekannteste[s] Klassikerzitat? (presumably Goethe?s G?tz von Berlichingen).
?Gleichzeitig l?ftet er seine Kehrseite? (Im Westen, p. 64).  Diminishing the
offensiveness of otherwise taboo subjects through the use of insinuation and neutral
vocabulary is also a technique which Remarque applies through B?umer during the train
journey of the latter to the hospital. B?umer has to ask a nurse for the location of the
lavatory, but he is unable to recollect any adequately polite expressions. When
describing to the reader his subsequent embarrassment, he therefore opts for the vague
term Dinge: ?[I]ch habe keine Ahnung wie man die Dinge fachm?nnisch benennt? (Im
Westen, p. 168). ?Da kommt Albert mir zu Hilfe [?] aber auch Albert wei? nicht mehr,
wie er sich tadellos und anst?ndig ausdr?cken soll.? (Im Westen, p. 168). The coarser
tone of the front is only implied but not applied by B?umer, and Brian A. Rowley is
therefore incorrect in claiming that ?[s]catological terms certainly do appear in the
characters? vocabulary?.
62
  B?umer?s sensitivity, unequalled in any of the other characters in Im Westen, also
allows Remarque to add the occasional poetic touch to the narrative, such as in
B?umer?s exclamation:
Nie ist uns das Leben in seiner kargen Gestalt so
begehrenswert erschienen wie jetzt; ? der rote
Klatschmohn auf den Wiesen unserer Quartiere, die
glatten K?fer an den Grashalmen, die warmen Abende in
den halb-dunklen, k?hlen Zimmern, die schwarzen,
geheimnisvollen B?ume der D?mmerung, die Sterne und
das Flie?en des Wassers, die Tr?ume und der lange Schlaf
? o Leben, Leben, Leben! (Im Westen, p. 191).
A similar tone also characterizes the narrative when B?umer, whilst on home leave,
looks through his bookcase in an attempt to regain enthusiasm for life: ?Der Wind der
75
W?nsche, der aus den bunten B?cherr?cken aufstieg, soll mich wieder erfassen [?]?
(Im Westen, p. 121). Critics have generally regarded the sentimentality which at times
crops up in B?umer?s narrative as a weakness of both the novel and its author.
63
Sentimentality is, admittedly, not an uncommon feature in Remarque?s novels, but then
Im Westen and Remarque?s other works do focus on individuals who have become
innocent victims of circumstances out of their control. Their future is uncertain and
death often looms in the background of their existences. Realization of the irrevocability
of death tends to provoke emotion and so the nature of the content of Remarque?s
novels justifies (perhaps even requires) that the characters display a certain degree of
sentimentality. B?umer?s inner monologue with his mother on his final evening on
leave, for example, is certainly emotionally loaded, but if contemplating the scenario,
B?umer cannot be reproached for expressing poignancy: His mother is dying and he
must return and participate in a war he does not believe in, but which may nevertheless
cost him his life. He is, in fact, unlikely to see his mother again. B?umer?s reiteration of
?ach Mutter? expresses not only his sadness, voiced in the ?ach?, but the many
repetitions (unnatural in ordinary speech or thought) of ?Mutter? and indeed the
mother?s continuous reference to B?umer as ?mein Kind?, stress B?umer?s young age
and his inner questioning of the rationality in his having to return to the front: ?Ach
Mutter, Mutter, wie kann man es begreifen, da? ich weg mu? von dir, wer hat denn
anders ein Recht auf mich als du?(Im Westen, p. 129). This question is, of course,
directed at the reader. The sentimentality on these pages therefore serves to encourage
the reader to question the morality of war, and thereby underpins the pacifist message of
the work.
  Although B?umer acts as the single narrator of Im Westen, there are incidents in the
work where he appears to be oblivious of the aesthetic quality of his choice of
76
vocabulary or syntax. Such examples therefore remind the reader that there is a creator
and editor behind B?umer and his story. When B?umer, for instance, says: ?Wir m?ssen
hier auf dem Friedhof bleiben? and ?da wei? ich wieder, da? wir auf dem Friedhof
liegen? (Im Westen, p. 53), he is unaware of the ambiguous meaning these statements
hold. To the reader, however, they signal the crumbling border between life and death
for B?umer and the other soldiers. Play on words related to the topic of death is also
used humorously in the novel. Being transported by train to the hospital, B?umer
confesses: ?Ich bin t?dlich erschrocken [my emphasis]?. B?umer uses the adverb to
accentuate his state of alarm, but to the reader the expression is amusing, since
B?umer?s life is not at that point endangered; instead his shock is caused by having to
inform a pretty nurse whether his needs the lavatory in order to relieve himself of
?[k]lein oder gro?? (Im Westen, p. 168).
  The above examples are related to semantics, but there are also incidents where
aestheticism is created through the phonetic or visual impression of the text. This is
achieved, for instance, through alliterations which are numerous in Im Westen, perhaps
because Remarque found the audible impact of his novels important:
64
Aber wir werden wieder mit vorw?rts gezogen, willenlos
und doch wahnsinnig wild und w?tend, wir wollen t?ten,
denn das dort sind unsere Todfeinde jetzt, ihre Gewehre
und Granaten sind gegen uns gerichtet, vernichten wir sie
nicht, dann vernichten sie uns! [my emphases] (Im
Westen, p. 84-85).
  This extract is particularly euphonic. In addition to the underlined alliterations, there is
assonance in the fourth and fifth line.
  At a glance, the form of Im Westen appears to be relatively simple, but close reading
unveils the careful design that must have preceded the final product. Certainly, the
77
complexity of the narrative perspective suggests that both content and form of Im
Westen were thoroughly planned and coordinated with one another. Other studies which
have considered the different formal aspects of the work substantiate this assertion.
65
 Im
Westen was neither the first nor the only pacifist First World War novel to appear
during the interwar years. However, the work had a general appeal in that it showed the
impact of modern warfare on the individual, regardless of nationality, religion and, to
some extent, even which war was being fought. At the same time the novel?s limited
length together with the relatively simple vocabulary and syntax made it approachable
even to otherwise non-readers. Due to its high sales figures, its pacifist message and the
increasing political tension in the latter years of the Weimar Republic, however, the
criticism Im Westen 
received
 was generally biased and often reflected the political stance
of the individual critic.
  A short article in Die nationale Erziehung from 1931 shows the connection between
the political view of the reviewer and the stance taken to Im Westen. The author of the
article is clearly unable to view the novel objectively:
[W]er im Anfang in dem Verfasser einen wahren Dichter
erkennen zu m?ssen glaubte, mu? seinen Irrtum
bekennen. Denn Remarque ist nichts weiter als geschickte
Aufmachung, gerissene Journalistik. [?] Aber denen, die
Pazifisten sind und von Geiste der Wehrhaftigkeit nichts
begreifen und lieber sich dem ?u?ersten franz?sischen
Chauvinismus verschreiben als gewillt sind, mit dem
erwachenden deutschen Nationalismus einen Modus
vivendi zu finden, denen hat er eine Waffe gegeben, die
damit die Seele des Volkes verw?sten.
66
  The opposing camp is presented, for instance, by Egon Danklieb in Signal: Bl?tter f?r
Junges Schaffen:
78
Mit der Kunst wird heute viel Schundluder getrieben.
Remarques Buch ist Kunst, ist lebendige Gestalt; denn es
ist da und lebt und rei?t Tausende in seinen Bann. ? Der
Inhalt, die Idee des Buches macht es erst zum Kunstwerk.
Es hat keine Tendenz. Aber die so intensive erlebte
Wirklichkeit der furchtbaren menschheitstrag?die schafft
sich selbst eine passende Form. ? Ist nicht Kunst eine
vollkommene Synthese zwischen Inhalt und Form? Inhalt
bedingt die Form und diese erl?st jenen. [?] Leben thront
?ber der Kunst ? aber ist nicht oft innerstes Erlebnis erst
mit der Gestaltung m?glich? - - Der Krieg selbst ist
wirklicher als Remarques Buch! ? Aber l??t Remarques
Gestaltung uns den Krieg nicht vielleicht tiefer
e r l e b e n? ? ?
67
  It is the complete contrast between such articles which warrants ? even necessitates ? a
detailed study of Remarque?s narrative abilities, so that the postulations can finally be
either substantiated or refuted.
  In the latter quotation, Egon Danklieb stresses the interconnection between content and
form. The conveyance of B?umer?s psychological deterioration and gradual retreat from
the group is indeed supported by the formal elements, such as the overall structure, but
particularly through skilful exploitation of pronouns. In addition to the striking switch
from wir to ich, B?umer furthermore narrates in the third person singular using both
man and er. These pronouns are used deliberately and enable Remarque to create
distance between his narrator and the reader. This, in effect, reduces B?umer?s position
from central figure and an individual to being simply a representative of an entire
generation. Interestingly, the perspective nevertheless remains solely that of B?umer
and this is one of the novel?s strong points. It is the consistency of B?umer as narrator
that makes the story so convincing and it is therefore somewhat ironic that it was this
deceptive authenticity that caused many critics to reject the work.
79
                         Notes to Im Westen nichts Neues
1. Ann P. Linder, Princes of the Trenches: Narrating the German Experience of the
First World War (Columbia: Camden House, 1996). Chapter three, ?The Experience of
War?, is particularly relevant in this context as it explains the German soldiers? differing
psychological reaction to the war compared to that of their English and French
opponents. The chapter also contains an interesting discussion about the importance of
the link between Erlebnis and Bildung in the German national consciousness until 1945.
2. Despite their quantitative dominance, the nationalistic works of the First World War
have almost all gone into oblivion. Indeed, German First World War literature is now
predominantly associated with the message of pacifism. The disappearance of the
nationalistic works must be seen in historical context. The Second World War had
proven the beliefs expressed in these works of a Germany of superior culture and
civilization incorrect or at least unfounded. Moreover, to many Germans, any reminder
of the result of Hitler?s regime was less than welcome. Wolfgang Natter, Literature at
War 1914-1940: Representing the ?Time of Greatness? in Germany (New Haven etc.:
Yale University Press, 1999), p. 2.
3. Eric J. Leed distinguishes between, what he calls, ?liberal? and ?conservative?
narratives of the First World War. However, as Linder has pointed out, the term
?conservative? has a wider meaning than ?nationalistic?, though the two are used more or
less interchangeably in Leed?s work. Eric J. Leed, No Man?s Land: Combat & Identity
in World War I (Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 25. Linder,
Princes of the Trenches, p. 2. See also: Linder?s chapter three, ?The Experience of War?,
pp. 45-113.
4. It must, however, be noted that, due to censorship, the population at home was
presented only with a partial and often incorrect picture of the situation on the battle
fronts. Edlef K?ppen portrays this distortion of reality in his novel Heeresbericht by
incorporating excerpts from approximately 145 authentic documents, such as newspaper
publications, governmental decrees and military communiqu?s. The contrast between
the senseless killing experienced by the protagonist Reisiger on the front and the
rhetorical propaganda fed to the German civilian population is striking.
Edlef K?ppen, Heeresbericht ([1930] Reinbek/ Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1985).
5. See Linder, Princes of the Trenches, chapter 3.
6. Travers, German Novels on The First World War, pp. 130, 134. See also, Brian
Murdoch, ?Hinter die Kulissen des Krieges sehen: Adrienne Thomas, Evadne Price ?
and E. M. Remarque?, Forum for Modern Language Studies, 28 (1992), pp. 56-74 (p.
56).
7. Thomas F. Schneider, ?Von Pat zu Drei Kameraden: Zur Entstehung des ersten
Romans der Exil-Zeit Remarques?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 2
(1992), pp. 66-77 (p. 69). See also, Schneider, ??Es ist ein Buch ohne Tendenz??, p. 29.
80
8. Murdoch, ?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg zur?ck?, p. 20.
9. De Leeuw, ?The Function of Simile in Erich Maria Remarque?s Im Westen nichts
Neues?, p. 25.
10. Firda, All Quiet in the Western Front: Literary Analysis and Cultural Context, p. 46.
11. Other consistent first-person narrators are found in Ludwig Renn?s Krieg and Ernst
Johannsen?s, now almost forgotten, Fronterinnerungen eines Pferdes. As the title
indicates, the latter offers the war experience from a horse?s point-of-view. For a rare
examination of Johannsen?s novels, see Murdoch?s essay Tierische Menschen und
menschliche Tiere in which he juxtaposes two of Johannsen?s novels with Remarque?s
Im Westen. Brian Murdoch, ?Tierische Menschen und menschliche Tiere. Ernst
Johannsen: Vier von der Infanterie und Fronterinnerungen eines Pferdes (1929)?, in
Von Richthofen bis Remarque: Deutschsprachige Prosa zum 1. Weltkrieg, edited by
Thomas F. Schneider and Hans Wagener (Amsterdam etc.: Rodopi, 2003), pp. 249-60.
Ernst Johannsen, Fronterinnerungen eines Pferdes (Hamburg-Bergedorf: Fackelreiter,
1929). Ludwig Renn, Krieg/ Nachkrieg ([1928/ 1930] Reinbek near Hamburg: Rowohlt,
1988).
12. See, for example, M?ller, Der Krieg und die Schriftsteller, pp. 52-53. Also, Kloiber,
?Struktur, Stil und Motivik in Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues?, pp. 65, 72-73.
13. Schneider points to the fact that at least three revised manuscripts of Im Westen
exist. The novel was thus not written spontaneously and in the course of just six weeks,
as claimed by Remarque and his publisher, Ullstein. Schneider, ??Am besten nichts
Neues?? Zum Stand der Remarque-Forschung?, in Erich Maria Remarque: Leben, Werk
und weltweite Wirkung, edited by Thomas F. Schneider (Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1998), pp.
27-39 (pp. 36-37). For examples of the changes undertaken, see, Schneider, ??Es ist ein
Buch ohne Tendenz??, pp. 32-36; as well as Schneider, ?Prolegomena zur Darstellung
der ?Entstehung? und ?Rezeption? von Erich Maria Remarques Im Westen nichts
Neues?.
14. The omitted two lines: ?[Dieses Buch soll] vor allem aber kein Erlebnis sein; denn
der Tod ist kein Erlebnis mehr f?r den, der ihm gegen?bersteht? are included in A. W.
Wheen?s English translation. Wheen?s text was based on an earlier manuscript in which
Remarque had not yet omitted the line, above. See, Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque,
Im Westen nichts Neues: Text ? Edition ? Entstehung ? Distribution und Rezeption
(1928-1930) (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Osnabr?ck, 1999), A-B,
1, pp. 465-67.
15. Richard Littlejohns, ??Der Krieg hat uns f?r alles verdorben?: The real theme of Im
Westen nichts Neues?, Modern Languages: Journal of the Modern Language
Association, 70 (1989), pp. 89-94 (p. 93).
16. Schneider, ?Erwartungen von Rezensenten an Kriegsliteratur: Die Rezeption von
Erich Maria Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues, 1928-1930?, p. 124.
81
17. For all aspects of publication during the First World War, see: Natter, Literature at
War 1914-1940.
18. Murdoch, ?Paul B?umer?s Diary: Im Westen nichts Neues, the War Diary and the
Fictionality of the War Novel?, in Remarque Against War: Essays for the Centenary of
Erich Maria Remarque 1898-1970, pp. 1-23 (p. 9).
19. Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque, Im Westen nichts Neues: Text ? Edition ?
Entstehung ? Distribution und Rezeption (1928-1930), p. 463.
20. Murdoch, ?Paul B?umer?s Diary?, p. 18.
21. Friedrich Luft, ?Das Profil: Gespr?ch mit Erich Maria Remarque (1963)?, p. 120.
22. Murdoch too comments on the use of the subjunctive and the inclusion of the word
beinahe. Murdoch, ?Narrative Strategies in Remarque?s ?Im Westen nichts Neues??,
p. 195.
23. M?ller, Der Krieg und die Schriftsteller, p. 52.
24. Aside from the famous closing remark by the third person narrator: ?[?] im Westen
sei nichts Neues zu melden? (Im Westen, p. 197), B?umer says, for instance: ?Es ist still,
die Front ist ruhig [?]? (Im Westen, p. 152); ?[d]ie Front bleibt ruhig? (Im Westen, p.
154). Also, referring to Duval?s death, he says: ?Es ist ja nichts Neues [?]? (Im Westen,
p. 155). Finally, when Kat dies: ?Es ist alles wie sonst. Nur der Landwehrmann
Stanislaus Katczinsky ist gestorben? (Im Westen, p. 195).
25. K?ppen, Heeresbericht, p. 172. Although stated as early as in 1888, the exhibited
attitude was just as valid at the time of the First World War.
26. Schneider, ?Es ist ein Buch ohne Tendenz?, p. 35. The excerpt does not reveal
exactly who the plural pronoun ?sie? refers to, but in an earlier quotation in the same
article by Schneider, B?umer?s group talks of ?dem der Krieg was n?tzt?, Schneider, ?Es
ist ein Buch ohne Tendenz?, p. 33. Other pacifist statements which are not included in
the book publication of Im Westen can be found in Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque,
Im Westen nichts Neues: Text ? Edition ? Entstehung ? Distribution und Rezeption
(1928-1930), p. 1221.
27. Schrader, Der Fall Remarque. Im Westen nichts Neues, p. 342. Barbel?s work
includes a German translation of the entire film script by Georg Abbott, Maxwell
Anderson and Dell Andrews.
28. Presumably as a result of the fame of Remarque?s work, the communiqu? has
become a commonly used phrase. Allusions to it also figure regularly in titles of both
English and German recent publications such as Steve Humphries, All Quiet on the
Home Front: An Oral History of Life in Britain During the First World War (2004);
Colin Ward, All Quiet on the Hooligan Front: Eight years that shook Football (1996);
Angelika Hennecke, Im Osten nichts Neues? Eine pragmalinguistisch-semiotische
Analyse ausgew?hlter Werbeanzeigen f?r Ostprodukte im Zeitraum 1993 bis 1998
82
(1999) and Hans-J?rgen Wagener, Im Osten was Neues: Aspekte der EU-Ostweiterung
(1998).
29. G?nter Hartung, ?Gegenschriften zu Im Westen nichts Neues und Der Weg zur?ck?,
in Erich Maria Remarque: Leben, Werk und weltweite Wirkung, pp. 109-50 (p. 123).
30. Emil Marius Requark, Vor Troja nichts Neues (Berlin: Brunnen, 1930). Max Joseph
Wolff is assumed to be behind the pseudonym. For a closer examination of Vor Troja
nichts Neues, see, Murdoch, ?All Quiet on the Trojan Front: Remarque, Homer and War
as the Targets of Literary Parody?, German Life and Letters, 28 (1989), pp. 49-62. Also
Hartung, ?Gegenschriften zu Im Westen nichts Neues und Der Weg zur?ck?.
31. Requark, Vor Troja nichts Neues, p. 10.
32. Requark, Vor Troja nichts Neues, p. 12.
33. ?Ich will meine Leser weder ?berzeugen noch ?berreden oder erziehen. Ich
beschreibe, was mich bewegt, und weil ich mich als normalen Menschen betrachte,
wei? ich, da? auch andere durch das bewegt werden, was mich bewegt.? Heinz
Liepman, ?Remarque und die Deutschen: Ein Gespr?ch mit Erich Maria Remarque
(1962)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist, pp. 110-17 (p. 114).
34. Thor Goote, Wir fahren den Tod ([1930] Berlin: Gutenberg, 1940), p. 348.
35. Franz Schauwecker, Der feurige Weg (Leipzig: Der Aufmarsch, 1926), p. 6.
36. Schauwecker, Der feurige Weg, p. 9.
37. Ernst Wiechert, Jedermann: Geschichte eines Namenlosen (Munich: Georg M?ller,
1931), p. 42.
38. Wiechert, Jedermann, p. 9.
39. Wiechert, Jedermann, pp. 27-28.
40. This plural perspective was not originally intended by Remarque. In one of the early
manuscripts, B?umer figures as ?allwissender Erz?hler und Augenzeuge [?] B?umer
hat eine eigene Meinung, die expliziert wird. In der Buchfassung [?] wird die
personale Perspektive zugunsten des, das Ideal der Kameradschaft auch in der
Erz?hlperspektive reflektierenden ?wir? zur?ckgenommen.? Schneider, ?Es ist ein Buch
ohne Tendenz?, p. 36.
41. Kloiber, ?Struktur, Stil und Motivik in Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues?, p. 68.
Travers additionally points to the ambiguity of B?umer?s references to ?einer? and
?jeder? (Im Westen, p. 16). Travers, German Novels on The First World War, p. 91.
42. Murdoch, ?Narrative Strategies in ?Im Westen nichts Neues??, pp. 190-91.
43. Travers, German Novels on The First World War. Also, Murdoch, ?Narrative
Strategies in ?Im Westen nichts Neues??.
83
44. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, pp. 171-72. Maria Brandi and Nicole
Lehmann, ??Unsere durchsiebten, durchl?cherten Seelen?: Krieg und Kampf in
sprachlichen Bildern bei Erich Maria Remarque, ?Im Westen nichts Neues??, in Das
deutsche Reich ist eine Republik: Beitr?ge zur Kommunikation und Sprache der
Weimarer Zeit, edited by Horst D. Schlosser (Frankfurt am Main etc.: Peter Lang,
2003), pp. 29-37.
45. Forster argues that a plot is dependent on causality, and that a plot additionally
requires a time-sequence. Forster, Aspects of the Novel, p. 87. Travers raises the
question as to whether Im Westen has a plot or not, but he does not take a definite stand.
Travers, German Novels on The First World War, p. 91.
46. Kloiber, ?Struktur, Stil und Motivik in Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues, p. 68.
47. One character, Tjaden, remains unaccounted for, but he survives the war as he
reappears in Der Weg. In the closing chapter B?umer states rather vaguely that ?[v]on
den alten Leuten sind nicht mehr viele da?, and it is possible that Tjaden is amongst
these few. In the novel?s second part, he does not, however, play a significant role in
B?umer?s existence. In one of the early manuscripts and in the serial in the Vossische
Zeitung, Tjaden too is killed, which leaves no survivors from B?umer?s original group.
Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque, Im Westen nichts Neues: Text ? Edition ?
Entstehung ? Distribution und Rezeption (1928-1930), p. 1211.
48. Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque, Im Westen nichts Neues: Text ? Edition ?
Entstehung ? Distribution und Rezeption (1928-1930), p. 450.
49. The close friendship between the characters of Im Westen is examined in David J.
Ulbrich, ?A Male-Conscious Critique of Erich Maria Remarque?s All Quiet on the
Western Front?, Journal of Men?s Studies: A Scholarly Journal about Men and
Masculinities, 3 (1995), pp. 229-40.
50. Goote, Wir fahren den Tod, pp. 42, 45.
51. Leonhard Frank, Der Mensch ist gut ([1917] Hanover: Fackeltr?ger, n. d.), p. 75.
52. Murdoch, ?Narrative Strategies in ?Im Westen nichts Neues??, p. 194.
53. Frank, Der Mensch ist gut, p. 118.
54. Kessler, Aus den Tageb?chern 1918-1937, p. 287.
55. Imagery, and particularly similes, is used liberally throughout the novel. See, De
Leeuw, ?The Function of Simile in Erich Maria Remarque?s Im Westen nichts Neues?.
56. Murdoch, ?Narrative Strategies in ?Im Westen nichts Neues??, p. 191.
57. See especially: M?ller, Der Krieg und die Schriftsteller. Also, Schrader, Der Fall
Remarque. Im Westen nichts Neues. Forster, Aspects of the novel, pp. 73-81.
84
58. Hartung states: ?Bei allen Nicht-Sch?lern, h?chstens Westhus ausgenommen, bleibt
der pers?nliche Hintergrund v?llig dunkel; von ihrer Lebensweise vor dem Kriege
erf?hrt man nichts; im sozialen Hintergrund fehlen alle Z?ge von Daseins- und
Existenzkampf. Und am problematischsten wird schlie?lich die Art und Weise sein, wie
die Figuren zu ihrem Ende gebracht werden. Kurz, man merkt ihnen an, da? sie nur
m?hsam und nur f?r einen Nebenzweck erfunden worden sind.? G?nter Hartung, ?Zum
Wahrheitsgehalt des Romans Im Westen nichts Neues?, Erich Maria Remarque
Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 1 (1991), pp. 5-17 (p. 10).
59. Firda, All Quiet on the Western Front, pp. 17-18, 50-51.
60. Littlejohns, ?Der Krieg hat uns f?r alles verdorben?, p. 91. Also, Schwarz, War and
the Mind of Germany, p. 29; and Brandi and Lehmann, ??Unsere durchsiebten,
durchl?cherten Seelen??, p. 31.
61. Littlejohns, ?Der Krieg hat uns f?r alles verdorben?, p. 90.
62. Brian A. Rowley, ?Journalism into Fiction: Im Westen nichts Neues?, in The First
World War in Fiction, edited by Holger Klein (London etc.: Macmillan, 1976), pp. 101-
11 (p. 103).
63. Barker and Last, for instance, note: ?Remarque?s greatest failing as a writer is this
tendency towards oversentimentality, emotional self-indulgence, and pretentiousness?.
Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 114. Helena Sz?pe too notes: ?Zweifellos
beruht ein gro?er Teil der Wirksamkeit der Remarqueschen Romane darauf, da? der
Autor den Fortsetzungsstil der Illustrierten meisterhaft beherrschte: einfache, saloppe
Sprache, gewandter Dialog und eine wohlproportionierte Mischung von Humor,
Sentimentalit?t und Spannung?. Helena Sz?pe, ?Der deklassierte Kleinb?rger in den
Romanen Erich Maria Remarques?, Monatshefte, 65 (1973), pp. 385-92 (p. 385).
64. In an interview from 1968, Remarque states: ?Ich schreibe mit den Ohren. Ich h?re
alles, was ich schreibe. Ich w?hle Worte nach ihrem Klang. Mit Oropax in den Ohren
beispielweise k?nnte ich keine Zeile schreiben, weil ich sie nicht h?ren k?nnte. Weil ich
musikalisch bin, weil ich mal ein ganz guter Organist war, weil ich eigentlich Musiker
werden wollte, deshalb klingen meine Romane alle gut, wenn sie gelesen werden?.
Manfred L?tgenhorst, ?Emigrant zweier Welten?, M?nchener Abendzeitung, 22 June
1968, p. 6.
65. Kloiber, ?Struktur, Stil und Motivik?; De Leeuw, ?The Function of Simile in Erich
Maria Remarque?s Im Westen nichts Neues?; Murdoch, ?Narrative Strategies in
Remarque?s ?Im Westen nichts Neues??. Also: Rowley, ?Journalism into Fiction?; and
Travers, German Novels on The First World War.
66. N. N. , ?Preussenzentrum und Remarques Kriegsbuch Im Westen nichts Neues?, Die
nationale Erziehung, 12 (1931), pp. 314-16 (pp. 314-15).
67. Egon Danklieb, ?Im Westen nichts Neues?, Signal: Bl?tter f?r junges Schaffen, 2
(1929) pp. 23-25 (pp. 24-25).
85
                                          Chapter 2
                    Der Weg zur?ck and Drei Kameraden
  ?Mensch, pa? auf, es ist Frieden!? (Der Weg, p. 14). These words are voiced by Willy
Homeyer in the opening chapter of Der Weg zur?ck, when unexplainable silence
suddenly characterizes the otherwise permanently noisy front. His outcry indeed reflects
the main issue of both Der Weg and Kameraden. Willy uses the phrase, ?pa? auf?, not in
its literal sense as a warning, but idiomatically to stress the ensuing part of his
exclamation: ?es ist Frieden?. Nevertheless, through Willy?s formulation, Remarque
signals to the reader that the uneasiness, which lurks under the surface of the soldiers?
hesitant jubilation, is justified. Moreover, Willy?s outcry is said to ?fall like a bomb?,
and indeed in both Der Weg and the following novel, Kameraden, peacetime proves to
also take its casualties. Aside from the introductory chapter of Der Weg, the two works
are set after the war and portray the former soldiers? struggle of reacclimatizing to
civilian life and values.
  Compared to the vast amount of German literature presenting the event of the First
World War, the post-war phase and the problems faced by the returning soldiers have
been treated by only a limited number of authors. In addition to Remarque?s Der Weg
and Kameraden, the best known works on this topic are probably Ludwig Renn?s
Nachkrieg and Ernst Glaeser?s Frieden which function as sequels to the war novels
Krieg and Jahrgang 1902 respectively. However, Josef Roth?s Zipper und sein Vater
likewise deals with the subject; as do Hans Sochaczewer?s Menschen nach dem Kriege
and Hans Fallada?s Bauern, Bonzen und Bomben. Also, twenty years and another World
86
War later, Remarque would return to the theme of First World War soldiers?
reintegration into Weimar society in his novel, Der schwarze Obelisk. This novel too
employs a first-person narrator. However, the fact that it is written with the
consequences of the Nazi rule in retrospect distinguishes this work from the two novels
discussed in this chapter. For this reason, but also for the purpose of keeping to the
novels? chronological order, Obelisk will be discussed in a later chapter.
  Whilst the study of a novel?s themes can function independently from the form of the
given work, the opposite is not the case, as the form is generally a reflection of the
message the author wishes to convey. Examining the form of two novels concurrently
would therefore necessarily incorporate organizing four variables (the two works?
contents and forms) simultaneously. For the sake of clarity, but also in order to be able
to identify possible developments in Remarque's narrative techniques, Der Weg and
Kameraden will therefore largely be examined separately. Similar successive, relatively
independant analyses will also be carried out in the following chapters.
  The title Der Weg zur?ck is ambiguous in that it can be interpreted as the soldiers?
physical return to Germany as well as their subsequent journey to psychological
recovery. The latter proves, in both Der Weg and Kameraden, to be a particularly
lengthy and, in some cases, even an impossible process. The difficulty in overcoming
the war experience is a theme which Remarque had touched upon already in 1920 in his
short story Der junge Lehrer: Plauderei eines Kriegslehrers.
1
 There are numerous
similarities between the content of this story and the section in Der Weg, which depicts
the protagonist, Birkholz?s, teaching experience in a small village. In the process of
writing Der Weg, Remarque therefore clearly drew on earlier material for inspiration.
2
Particularly noteworthy are the lyrics recited by the short story?s young teacher and
87
first-person narrator. The link between the first line of the citation and the title of
Remarque?s novel ?Der Weg zur?ck? is obvious.
                                        O w??t ich doch den Weg zur?ck,
                                         Den lieben Weg zum Kinderland.
3
  In context, ?Kinderland? does not necessarily refer to childhood but can equally be
interpreted as a state of innocence. In this instance, it thus refers to the pre-war period
when the narrator was still unaware of the true nature of war. The intensity of the young
teacher?s wish to resume ignorance and the difficulty (if not impossibility) in doing so
are communicated in the ?o? and ?doch? in ?O w??t ich doch den Weg zur?ck?. This
short lamentation is effectively also the central problem in Der Weg and Kameraden,
although there are no direct connections between the latter novel and the short story Der
junge Lehrer.
  Der Weg opens on the Western front on one of the last days of the war. It thus picks up
more or less where Im Westen concludes and embarks upon portraying the problems
encountered by the men as they return home after the war. In addition to the link created
by the time factor, there are other correlations which bind Der Weg to Im Westen as its
sequel. After the war, for instance, the narrator, Birkholz, is visiting a former school
friend, Giesecke, who has been admitted to a psychiatric hospital following a
particularly horrific incident on the front. During the visit, another unnamed patient
approaches the narrator: ??Was Neues drau?en?? fragt er. ?Nein, nichts Neues?,
erwidere ich? (Der Weg, pp. 144-45). Birkholz?s response clearly alludes to the title of
Remarque?s preceding work.
  The strongest connection, however, is generated by the reappearance in Der Weg of a
number of names first encountered in Im Westen. Tjaden, for instance, the only member
88
of B?umer?s group in Im Westen who remains unaccounted for at the end of the novel,
features also in Der Weg. The names of Leer, M?ller, Haie Westhus, Stanislaus
Katczinsky, Franz Kemmerich and, most notably, Paul B?umer are also all mentioned;
albeit as fallen comrades of the narrator (Der Weg, pp. 21, 107, 275).  Birkholz refers
specifically to the amputation and subsequent death of Kemmerich (Der Weg, p. 275)
and he tells of B?umer?s death taking place in October 1918 (Der Weg, p. 275).
Birkholz must thus have been with B?umer?s company throughout the narrative of the
latter. However, at the end of Im Westen, B?umer states that only a few men are left of
the original company. Birkholz must necessarily have been one of them and it thus
seems strange that B?umer should exclude him from his narrative ? especially
considering the marked degree of similarity in their personalities and backgrounds.
  The two protagonists are the same age and are from families of similar social status.
Their fathers are both bookbinders by profession, but, most notably, place and street
names even suggest that they share the same hometown, Osnabr?ck. B?umer and
Birkholz furthermore both reminisce about the Pappelgraben as a symbol of their youth
and a favoured place of recreation during their childhood. It therefore seems unlikely
that they should not be acquainted and that B?umer should exclude Birkholz from his
narrative, if they had indeed served in the same company on the front. Literary critics
have suggested that Remarque, in writing Der Weg, regretted the irreversible
elimination of B?umer at the end of Im Westen, and hence created an almost identical
protagonist for the sequel.
4
 However, despite an astonishing uniformity in the two
characters, particularly with regards to their external circumstances, there are some
marked differences between the two.
  As discussed in the previous chapter, B?umer uses a courteous language throughout
the novel. In Der Weg, on the contrary, profanities such as ?verflucht?, ?verdammt? or
89
?Arschloch? (Der Weg, e.g. pp. 15, 94, 130), but also stronger expressions like
?Schleimschei?er? or ?Satansbiest? (Der Weg, pp. 56, 94) are numerous. Whereas
B?umer tactfully says ?[Kat] l??t einen kr?ftigen Laut h?ren? (Im Westen, p. 36),
Birkholz is more blunt: ?[Willy] l??t einen gewaltigen Furz losheulen? (Der Weg, p. 97).
The different level of politeness between the expressions ?Laut? and ?Furz? need no
clarification, but the verb ?losheulen? too is more emphatic and colloquial than
B?umer?s neutral ?l??t h?ren?.
  Birkholz also uses a number of other vernacular, though inoffensive, phrases, which
give the novel a more light-hearted and less dreamy tone than the preceding work. Most
interesting is the recurring play on army-related words and expressions, which add
texture locally and, at times, also humour to the work. When the retreating troops, for
instance, stop at a pub on their march back towards Germany, Kosole dances with
?einem strammen Deubel mit m?chtiger Brustwehr, an der er eine gute Gewehrauflage
hat? (Der Weg, p. 39). Similarly, a night club in Birkholz?s hometown is said to be
?bombenvoll? every night (Der Weg, p. 188). Birkholz likewise turns to figurative
speech when explaining how Bethke, who could cope with any situation on the front, is
helpless when faced with the prejudices of his local community regards the
unfaithfulness of his wife: ?hier aber h?ngt er im Drahtverhau und zerrei?t sich H?nde
und Gesicht? (Der Weg, p. 258). The register applied by Sochaczewer?s character,
Brand, in Menschen nach dem Kriege, reveals his past on the war front in a similar
manner, but whereas Birkholz appears oblivious to the reflection the war casts on his
language, Brand is conscious of the effect it exercises on his vocabulary: ?Hab? dich
vorhin ,Mensch? genannt; hast?s vielleicht gar nicht bemerkt, ich sp?rte es selber erst,
als es gesprochen war. Liegt mir noch vom Krieg her in den Knochen, diese Anrede?.
5
90
  Aside from the aesthetic effect, Birkholz?s play on words also serves to indicate that he
still observes his surroundings from a soldier?s point-of-view, although having returned
to civilian life.
6
 In line with the novel?s theme, there are allusions to the war which are
beyond the influence of the characters and, hence, must be regarded as the author?s play
on words: In the pub, for instance, the music is not coincidentally from ?Die lustige
Witwe? (Der Weg, p. 85), and although the operetta is not, of course, about a war-
widow, the inappropriate combination of ?lustig? and ?Witwe?, particularly in the
context of a war-novel, adds a hint of dark humour to the work.
Similarly to B?umer in Im Westen, Birkholz relates a large part of Der Weg in the first-
person plural. This accentuates his ongoing perception of himself as part of a greater
whole ? the army community. However, as the novel approaches its conclusion,
Birkholz (like B?umer at the end of Im Westen) finds himself physically alone: Ludwig
and Rahe have commited suicide and the comradeship of the others is gradually
disintegrating. In the Ausgang of Der Weg, a significant change of perspective takes
place from the first-person plural to the first-person singular. The subsequent reiteration
of ?ich? is striking against the previous use of ?wir?. Also, as the novel draws to a close,
references to the past are related in the plural ?wir?, whereas speculations and hopes for
the future pertain to Birkholz alone and are expressed by use of ?ich?.
7
 Mark Ward
suggests that the other characters recognize ?the need for individual action and
individual purpose [?]?. He continues:
                           [T]here seems agreement that each must go his own way,
                           something which is then enacted in the text in the
                           separation of the characters: ?Wie blicken uns an. Kosole
                           will etwas sagen, schweigt dann aber. Wir denken alle
                          dasselbe. Die Stadt kommt mit Stra?en und L?rm.
                          Valentin steigt aus. Dann Willy. Dann Kosole?.8
91
  Ward thus proposes that the characters consciously choose to reject their former group
identity. However, although they do indeed assume a more individual stance, this must
be regarded, at least partly, as an involuntary, natural development ? a part of the
readjustment process ? rather than the result of a conscious decision taken by the
returnees.
  Birkholz?s lingering soldier-identity is also communicated in a number of similes
where the vehicles relate to warfare and thereby further accentuates that Birkholz?s life
experience is limited to his years on the front. These allusions to the war are found
throughout the work. In a thunderstorm, for instance, flashes of lightening ?flammen
wie nahes M?ndungsfeuer von Gesch?tzen? (Der Weg, 54), and on a peaceful outing,
shouting from a nearby forest sounds ?als l?gen dort Verwundete? (Der Weg, p. 309). In
effect, Birkholz overcomes the war experience only when he learns to accept its
occurrence and use the insight he has gained as a foundation for his future: ?Dann
werden die Toten schweigen, und die Vergangenheit wird mich nicht mehr verfolgen,
sondern mir helfen? (Der Weg, p. 310).
  Notwithstanding the serious theme of Der Weg, humour is often juxtaposed with
graveness. Aside from Birkholz, the characters Willy and Tjaden are particularly
important elements in in reducing the solemnty of the topic. There nevertheless remains
an underlying tone of desolation until the Ausgang in which Birkholz eventually finds a
way to deal with the past. On occasion, humour appears unexpectedly in the midst of an
otherwise dark episode. One such example is the case of Tro?ke?s court appearance
during which a comical interruption by Tjaden seems somewhat incongruous with the
seriousness of the circumstances. It does nevertheless constitute a pleasant interruption
of the depressing issue depicted. Tjaden?s reaction can, however, also be interpreted
otherwise. On the battle front, humour was commonly used as a defence mechanism
92
against reality, as Remarque also shows in Im Westen. Considering his background,
Tjaden?s reaction in court can thus be read as his manner of coping with the unpleasant
situation. In the following novel, Kameraden, ?Galgenhumor? is in fact also applied by
the tubercular patients?, as a means of dealing with their condition (Kameraden, p. 350).
  Albeit not one and the same character, the similarities between B?umer and Birkholz
are striking ? even to the extent of implausibility ? but perhaps the exact identity of
Birkholz is as insignificant as that of B?umer, who, as discussed in the previous chapter,
essentially stands as a representative of any soldier. A similar generality governs Der
Weg. The various characters take different paths, but none of them is unique; rather,
they demonstrate a number of possible reactions to surviving the First World War.
It is perhaps not surprising that the number of characters presented in Der Weg exceeds
that of Im Westen. Whereas the latter work depicts a homogenous group of front-
soldiers in an environment with little room for individuality, Der Weg shows the
soldiers? return to a civilian setting where they find themselves free to let their
individuality reign ? within the scope of the written and unwritten rules of society. This
creates a number of problems. In addition to the alienation of the former soldiers from
the civilian population (the older generation in particular), other divisions develop.
External forces, such as the values of civilian society and class differences quickly
regain their influence on the thoughts and actions of the returning men. The previously
uniform group of soldiers disintegrates due to personal and external circumstances.
Some are troubled by the knowledge of their actions on the front, whereas others cling
to the rhetorical phrases of the war time. Consequently, some characters are able to
overcome the war experience relatively quickly ? they simply move on ? whereas
others, Birkholz included, initially struggle to readjust, but gradually learn to accept the
past. A proportion of the returning soldiers, however, also break under the
93
psychological effect of the war and, at worst, either commit suicide or are admitted to
mental institutions. The mental impact of the war proves extensive, but the
numerousness of the characters enables Remarque to depict an array of reactions from
soldiers and civilians to the reintegration of the returning men of different levels of
education, social classes and ages.
  Der Weg is predominantly a first-person narrative, but three episodes have generally
been identified as deviating in perspective.
9
The first of these deals with the failed marriage between Bethke and his wife. Bethke?s
homecoming story, in fact, consists of two episodes: The first one describes his arrival
home and subsequent realization that his wife has been unfaithful. Although Bethke
eventually forgives her, a later section depicts the devastating effects of the ongoing
harassment of the couple by their local community.
10
 Both parts of the Bethke-story are
narrated in the third person, but they are ably embedded in Birkholz?s narrative and
therefore interpretable as a part of it. As an indication of the switch, Birkholz explains:
?Schlie?lich h?re ich dann alles? (Der Weg, p. 125). This statement is followed by
Bethke?s story. At the conclusion of his account, the focus is again returned to Birkholz
when Bethke asks his opinion on the matter: ??Was soll man blo? machen, Ernst??
Adolf [Bethke] sieht auf? (Der Weg, p. 128). With regards to the narrative perspective,
consistency between the main plot and Bethke?s story is also achieved through the
register. Bethke?s account thus reflects the same vernacular tone which characterizes
Birkholz?s main narrative. When Bethke?s wife, for instance, begins to cry as a result of
their quarrels, this is explained in the colloquial terms generally characterizing the
soldier?s jargon: ?Da geht die Heulerei auch schon los? (Der Weg, p. 126).
Although Bethke?s story appears to be voiced by Birkholz, there is information in the
passage that only an omniscient narrator could know: ?[S]ie [die Frau] ist nicht lustig,
94
wie er [Bethke] es m?chte. Er wei? nicht, da? es ebensosehr an ihm liegt wie an ihr
[?]? (Der Weg, p. 256). If Bethke is unaware of his own contribution to the crumbling
of the marriage, this statement would have to be an assumption by Birkholz. This is
likewise the case later in the narrative, as the seemingly third-person perspective is
intersected with the narrator?s commentary:
                            [Bethke] redet weiter, bis die Frau am Gossenstein in der
                            Ecke steht, wo das Licht nicht hinf?llt, und wieder weint,
                            wie ein Kind. Er sieht, das er sich verlaufen hat. Ach,
                            Kinder sind wir alle, verlaufene, t?richte Kinder, und
                            immer steht  die Nacht um unser Haus. Er h?lt es nicht
                            aus, er geht fort [?] [my emphases] (Der Weg, p. 257).
  Birkholz is clearly not present, and he is also only superficially acquainted with the
civilian Bethke. The narrative perspective thus evidently exceeds the scope of
Birkholz?s vision.
  If similar episodes of inconsistency did not feature elsewhere in Der Weg, the
deviation from Birkholz?s perspective in Bethke?s story could be dismissed as perhaps
authorially unintended. However, two further episodes in Der Weg digress from the
viewpoint of Birkholz. These depict, first, the suicide of Ludwig, who has contracted
syphilis during the war and, second, Rahe, whose sense of guilt and disillusion over the
lost comradeship bring him to take his own life too.  The narrative perspective of these
two suicides likewise surpass Birkholz?s view span. As both Ludwig and Rahe are alone
at the time, the possibility that Birkholz (or anybody else) could have gained knowledge
of their last actions and thoughts is effectively ruled out.
11
  The identity of the omniscent narrator of these two detailed episodes which extends to
include the emotions of Ludwig and Rahe before they pass away therefore remains
unknown. Antkowiak erroneously claims that Ludwig shoots himself, whereas, in fact,
95
he cuts his wrists.
12
 In doing so, Ludwig attempts to rid his body, symbolically and
physically, of the syphilitic blood. Birkholz has previously escorted Ludwig to the
doctor?s. The description of the physician as a ?Brilleschlange? initially comes across as
an almost adolescent derision, used simply to describe the doctor?s spectacled face (Der
Weg, p. 239). However, references to snakes and venom are used figuratively on several
occasions during their visit. The medical man?s use of the word ?Lues?, for instance, as
opposed to ?Syphilis?, sounds to Birkholz, ?als w?re es eine d?nne, schwarze Schlange?
(Der Weg, p. 239). By diagnosing Ludwig with syphilis, the doctor thus indirectly
delivers a venomous bite, and Ludwig comes to perceive his condition as a poison
travelling the bloodstream. When he later commits suicide, he consequently cuts his
wrists and observes ?ein Bild, an das er oft gedacht hatte: dieses verha?te, vergiftete
Blut [?] [my emphasis]? (Der Weg, p. 273). The underlined part of the statement
functions as interior monologue or erlebte Rede. This allows the reader to momentarily
access directly the thoughts and emotions of Ludwig. Another such moment occurs
shortly before he falls unconscious, at which point he believes to see ?Flamingos, mit
weiten rosagrauen Schwingen, viele, ein Keil ? zogen nicht einmal Wildenten in einem
Keil gegen den sehr roten Mond, rot wie Mohn in Flandern? ? ? (Der Weg, p. 273).
The depiction of Ludwig as an innocent victim of the war is certainly intensified by
these insights into his final thoughts. However, the specific reference to pink flamingos
also form part of a leitmotiv which symbolically indicates that significant change is
about to take place; in this case, Ludwig?s death. In the opening chapter of the novel, a
similar sight occurs. (It is this which Ludwig recalls.) Birkholz?s group observes a flock
of geese crossing the sky above the battle front.
                          ?Da sind sie! Wilde G?nse!? Vor dem tr?ben Grau der
                          Wolken zieht dunkler ein Strich, ein Keil. Die Spitze
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                         steuert den Mond an, jetzt durchschneidet sie seine rote
                         Scheibe, deutlich sind die schwarzen Schatten zu sehen,
                         ein Winkel von vielen Fl?geln, ein Zug mit quarrenden,
                         fremden, wilden Rufen, der sich in der Ferne verliert (Der
                        Weg, p. 9).
  At that point, the sight of the birds signified change in the form of the end of the war,
and the soldiers? subsequent return home. In the end of the novel, wild geese again cross
the sky, this time symbolizing new circumstances for Birkholz personally, as he finally
comes to believe in a future. However, changes are also taking place at a wider scale.
The re-emergence of militarism is, for instance, already detectable in the next
generation of impressionable youths, and so, although the novel closes on a relatively
positive note for Birkholz personally, the geese forebode a negative development in
German society.
  The leitmotiv of the bird formation in the sky did, however, as Tilman Westphalen
notes, only assume its function as both an introducing and a concluding motif when Der
Weg was published in book form, because although the episodes serialized in the
Vossische Zeitung (from 7 December 1930 to 29 January 1931) were more or less all
included in the book version,
13
 Remarque altered the sequence of some of the episodes.
This affected both the opening and the ending of the story, resulting in the geese motif
becoming specifically linked to these two parts of the novel.
14
 As Westphalen
speculates, however, Remarque?s purpose for revising the order may have had little to
do with aesthetics. Rather, it could have been an attempt to ease the pessimistic note on
which the serialization in the Vossische Zeitung concluded. Thus, whereas the book
ends with Birkholz expressing hope, at least, for his personal future, the serialization
concluded in Rahe?s suicide.
  As noted above, three episodes distinguish themselves as differing from Birkholz?s
main narrative. In addition to Bethke?s homecoming, Ludwig?s suicide and Rahe?s
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return to Flanders constitute the other two episodes. Like the sections dealing with
Bethke and Ludwig, Rahe?s suicide is depicted in the third-person. However, whereas
the former two are told in the language of the soldiers and appear to reflect the
perspective of an omniscient third-person narrator intersected with erlebte Rede, the
register of the Rahe episode is devoid of colloquial expressions and mainly seems to
present the third-person limited perspective of Rahe?s own character.
  In addition to Bethke?s story and the novel?s two suicides there are a number of other
occasions on which the perspective temporarily switches from the first to a third person.
In order to describe one of the most obvious examples, the overall structure of Der Weg
must be outlined briefly: The novel contains an introductory Eingang and a concluding
Ausgang. There is a certain ambivalence attached to Remarque?s use of these terms. The
Eingang, or beginning, describes the end of the war and takes place in the autumn, a
season generally symbolizing a closing stage. In contrast, the work?s Ausgang relates to
Birkholz?s future and reveals his embryonic ideas of the path he wishes to take. The
notion of a new phase emerging ? both for Birkholz personally but also in a wider,
political context ? is reinforced by the fact that it has become springtime as the novel
draws to a close. In tandem with the paradoxicality surrounding the use of the two terms
?Eingang? and ?Ausgang?, Murdoch has noted a similar confusion relating to this
novel?s title and the work?s sense of direction ? literally and figuratively. The soldiers
do, of course, physically make their way back to Germany. However, emotionally, there
is no way back and the characters rather have to find a way forward.
15
  Aside from the Eingang and Ausgang, Der Weg is divided into seven main sections or
Teile, each of which again consists of three to five numbered subsections.  Erster and
Vierter Teil differ from the other five main sections, in that these two have short
pseudo-introductions preceding the actual numbered subsections. It is the unnumbered,
98
introductory page of the Erster Teil which is of interest in relation to the narrative
perspective. It describes the soldiers on their march back to Germany. The description
is, however, not delivered by Birkholz, but by an anonymous observer whose external
position is communicated in the use of third person pronouns when depicting the long
columns of soldiers from a birds-eye-view:
                         Schweigsam ziehen sie dahin, wie sie schon so viele
                         Stra?en entlang marschiert, [?] in so vielen Trichtern
                         gelegen haben, ohne viele Worte: so ziehen sie jetzt auch
                         diese Stra?e in die Heimat und den Frieden.
                         [?] So ziehen sie vorw?rts, schritt um Schritt [?]
                         [e]ntronnene der Unterwelt ? den Weg zur?ck ins Leben
                         [my emphases]? (Der Weg, p. 23).
  Since Birkholz is amongst the retreating soldiers, the cited passage must be related by
an external narrator. In Im Westen, B?umer admittedly applies a similar distanced
standpoint when describing himself in the third person as ?ein kleiner Soldat?. However,
as discussed in the previous chapter, this forms part of B?umer?s characterization as a
poetic nature. Birkholz, on the other hand, is more earthbound than his predecessor and
his language generally reflects this.
The perspective also stretches beyond the periphery of that of Birkholz?s awareness in
the pages depicting the war maimed as they advance through the streets, demonstrating
against their derisory allowances. The demonstration is also described in the third
person and there are no clues as to the identity of the narrator. The only statement
which, fleetingly, suggests a continuous presence and thus turns the attention from the
miserable picture of the procession to the person behind the narrative voice, is a short
reflection which differs from the descriptiveness of the rest of the episode: ?Es ist
sonderbar ? diese Menschen sind alle blindgeschossen; sie bewegen sich deshalb anders
als Blindgeborene [my emphasis]? (Der Weg, p. 243). This commentary could initially
99
be interpreted as delivered by Birkholz. However, he cannot be the reflective narrator,
because the third-person narrative then expands from a purely external view to
omniscience:
                   Sie [die Blindgeschossene] aber sp?ren kaum die milde
                   und z?rtliche Luft des Abends an ihren Stirnen ? mit ihren
                   groben  Stiefeln gehen sie langsam durch die ewige
                   Dunkelheit, die um sie wie eine Wolke gebreitet ist, und
                   z?he und tr?be klettern ihre Gedanken die geringen
                   Ziffern auf und ab, die f?r sie Brot, Versorgung und
                   Leben sein sollen und doch nicht sein k?nnen. Tr?ge
                   r?hren sich Hunger und Not in den erloschenen Kammern
                   ihres Gehirns. Hilflos und voll dumpfer Angst f?hlen sie
                   ihre N?he und k?nnen sie doch nicht sehen [?] [my
                   emphases] (Der Weg, p. 244).
  Only an omniscient narrator would be able to describe both the physical surroundings
and simultaneously relate the experience from the viewpoint of the visually impaired as
they march through the streets.
  There are a number of other short deviations from the prevailing first-person
perspective of Birkholz, but these have generally gone unnoticed. Although this
inconsistency in perspective reminds the reader of Birkholz?s fictionality and therefore
exercises an adverse effect on the closeness between reader and protagonist, it also has a
favourable impact on the novel. Whereas Im Westen largely depicts a single, uniform
entity ? the front-line soldiers ? Der Weg seeks to present different reactions to the war
experience. The limited effect of a consistent first-person account could therefore prove
inadequate. Such a narrator would, of course, know the details of his own experience of
returning home, but only Ludwig and Rahe can truly comprehend the experience of
committing suicide, and Ludwig alone would know of his last minute regrets, at which
point, however, he is physically too weak to reverse his actions. As both Ludwig and
Rahe are alone at the time of their deaths, these events can only be described fully by an
100
omniscient narrator.  Remarque?s depiction of the problem of reintegration thereby
comes to cover a wider scope than could have been achieved through a consistent first-
person narrative. In comparison to Im Westen, Der Weg thus explores a perspective
which exceeds that of the consistent first-person viewpoint.
16
  In many cases, estrangement between the soldiers and the civilian population (depicted
also in Im Westen) continues after the return of the former. Bethke and his wife have
grown apart and Willy?s mother is despairing over the attitude of her son. He has, for
instance, returned from the front with only two of four pairs of socks (and the remaining
two pairs are even ?lauter L?cher [?]. Beste Wolle war das!? (Der Weg, p. 70)). The
young soldiers who resume their education are incapable of accepting the submissive
role as students, and mutual lack of understanding also come to characterize Birkholz?s
relationship with his uncle Karl and aunt Line, as well as with his father. At his
bourgeois aunt?s dinner party, for example, Birkholz suggests that his itchiness may be
caused by a few remaining lice. His aunt immediately fears for the reputation of her
family, but Birkholz concludes; ?Aber so sind sie: Helden sollen wir sein, doch von
L?usen wollen sie nichts wissen [my emphases]? (Der Weg, p. 105). The pronouns ?wir?
and ?sie? communicate unambiguously the existence of two camps.
  As discussed in the previous chapter, the first and third person plural pronouns can act
as indicators of inclusion or exclusion respectively. In Im Westen, this is utilized to
show the split between home and front, but also a gap between generations. The effect
of personal pronouns is similarly exploited in Der Weg where the civilian setting rapidly
causes criteria, such as class; political conviction; level of education and age to decide
the soldiers? relations with one another. New groups consequently come to form across
the comradeships from the wartime, previously believed to be indestructible. The first
signs of dissolution, or at least restructuring, of this comradeship are noticeable even
101
before the soldiers reach German soil. Birkholz?s company encounters a group of
American soldiers and on the approach of their former enemy, the Germans
instinctively take a defensive position with their backs against a shed: ?Wir stehen
immer noch in der Ecke [?] nicht weil wir Angst haben, sondern weil wir
zusammengeh?ren [my emphases]? (Der Weg, p. 26). At this point, ?wir? clearly relates
to the German army. However, Kosole then learns that one of the American soldiers had
lived in Kosole?s neighbourhood in Dresden, prior to the war. The two men?s common
link to Dresden instantaneously creates a bond between them, which is reflected in
Kosole?s subsequent use of the inclusive ?wir?: ?[D]a? wir uns da nicht gesehen haben!
[?] [B]eide erinnern sich an die Elbe und an das Schlo? und strahlen sich deshalb an,
als w?ren sie alte Freunde? [my emphases]. Birkholz?s external position in his
description of the two men, ?als w?ren sie alte Freunde, is likewise of import, since it
communicates the exclusion of everybody else from the sudden bond between Kosole
and the American.
  The disintegration of friendships continues as old values resurface and social
conventions once more come to govern the minds of the former soldiers. Back in
Germany Valentin Laher, for example, meets a former war comrade in the street.
However, whereas Valentin regards his formerly close friend from a soldier?s point-of-
view, the other man judges Valentin as a civilian. Their differing vocabulary and
manner of addressing one another convey clearly their conflicting stances:
 ?Mensch. Kuckhoff, altes Haus, wo kommst du denn
her?? [?] Der andere sieht ihn absch?tzend eine Weile
an. ?Ah, Laher, nicht wahr?? ?Klar, Mann, du warst doch
mit mir an der Somme.[?] Wo bist du eigentlich
geblieben nachher?? Der andere gibt eine unbestimmte
Antwort. Dann sagt er: ?Nett, sich getroffen zu haben.
Wie geht es Ihnen denn, Laher?? ?Was?? gibt Valentin
verbl?fft zur?ck. ?Wie es Ihnen geht? Was machen Sie??
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?Sie?? [?] Einen Moment starrt er den andern an, der in
elegantem Covercoat vor ihm steht. Dann sieht er an sich
herunter, wird gl?hrot und schiebt weiter. ?Affe!? [my
emphases] (Der Weg, pp. 165-66).
  In Thor Goote?s Wir fahren den Tod, the protagonist, Lingen, predicts exactly this
scenario: ?Man wird wider ?Herr? zueinander sagen ?  ? [?] [Die Zeit] wird wieder
Abst?nde zwischen Menschen schaffen und zwischen Menschenklassen. Sicher wird
das so sein, ? sicher?.
17
 Yet, whereas Lingen is of the opinion that the general feeling of
comradeship will prevail, Der Weg suggests the opposite. This is portrayed also at the
soldiers? reunion party, where the army hierarchy instantaneously gives way to a
ranking system based on social status. When Tjaden ridicules Kosole?s overcoat, the
latter ?wird tats?chlich verlegen, und als er sich ungeachtet glaubt, betrachtet er
verstohlen den verspotteten Mantel? (Der Weg, p. 179). Consequently, Kosole begins to
question Birkholz about the profession of the fathers of the other young soldiers, and
when it is revealed that one is an Amtsrichter and another a Steuersekret?r, Kosole
concludes: ?Na, da werdet ihr ja wohl bald mit uns nicht mehr zu tun haben wollen [my
emphases]? (Der Weg, p. 180). However, he brightens up when he realizes that some of
the other soldiers, Birkholz included, are from more modest backgrounds. Kosole?s use
of ?ihr? and ?uns? again serves to reflect that the class-system has resumed power and
that it speedily erodes the former close comradeship of the soldiers.
Through careful observation at this reunion party and through his experience from the
First World War, Birkholz determines that the two hierarchical systems ? the army and
social class ? reward different qualities. In other words, the same person does not
occupy equivalent ranks within the two hierarchies. When Birkholz becomes a teacher
in a rural school, he draws a similar conclusion from comparing the individual pupil?s
status in the classroom with that in the schoolyard.
103
Birkholz?s views and comments on the hierarchy in the army and wider society
respectively, in conjunction with his claims of the negative effect of school education,
suggest that he believes in a natural order, as opposed to an artificially made, social
structure.
[A]ufrichtig und ahnungslos wie junge Tiere kamen sie
von ihren Wiesen [?] in die Schule ? noch galt unter
ihnen das einfache Gesetz des Lebendigen ?, der
Lebendigste, Kraftvollste war der F?hrer, dem die andern
folgten. Aber mit den Wochenportionen der Bildung
wurde ihnen allm?hlich ein anderes, k?nstliches Gesetz
der Bewertung aufgepfropft (Der Weg, p. 214).
  Birkholz therefore does not object, but simply nods to Willy?s intention of redefining
the concept of homeland in the minds of his pupils: ?Ich will meinen Jungens da
beibringen, was wirklich Vaterland ist. Ihre Heimat n?mlich, und nicht eine politische
Partei. Ihre Heimat aber sind B?ume, ?cker, Erde [?]? (Der Weg, p. 308). This rings
reminiscent of the German, v?lkische ideology and particularly the romantic and
irrational belief that a people was deeply connected to and rooted in the landscape
surrounding it, yet having experienced the war, Birkholz and Willy combine their
Heimatgef?hl with internationalism.
18
  In Der Weg, nature has not only been applied in the form of imagery which runs
parallel to and emphasizes Birkholz?s moments of both despair and hope, it is also
central to the conveyance of Birkholz?s gradual psychological recovery. Only when he
eventually seems to merge with nature, does he find the resources to move on. As the
train with the returning soldiers approaches Birkholz?s hometown, a storm forebodes
the psychological problems that await them: ?Im Schein der Blitze stechen am Rande
der Landschaft die schmalen, d?nnen T?rme der Stadt in den Himmel. Donnernd f?llt
die Dunkelheit jedesmal wieder dar?ber hin, aber bei jedem Blitz kommen die n?her?
104
(Der Weg, p. 54). In search for ?die Landschaft [s]einer Jugend? (Der Weg, p. 136),
Birkholz goes fishing in the Pappelgraben, a recreation also mentioned by B?umer in Im
Westen. The catch amounts to two sticklebacks which he puts in a clear jar. ?[I]ch halte
es vorsichtig und sehe manchmal hinein, klopfenden Herzens, als h?tte ich meine
Jugend darin gefangen und tr?ge sie nun mit mir nach Hause. [?] Aber pl?tzlich
durchf?hrt mich ein rasender Schreck ? runter, runter, Deckung, du stehst ja ganz frei
im Blickfeld!? (Der Weg, p. 135-36). He drops the glass and the water runs out.
However, he manages to save the sticklebacks by refilling the jar. The brief connection
to his childhood is nevertheless lost (like the first jarful of water), but hope remains,
because the key element, the sticklebacks, have been saved. The dual, but conflicting
sides to Birkholz?s psyche reveal themselves in this episode. Suddenly, as the spell of
the childhood recreation of fishing is broken, Birkholz instinctively inspects the terrain
from a soldier?s point-of-view and considers the best position for defence: ?[D]ie
Pappeln m??te man abhauen [?]? (Der Weg, p. 136).The poplars, however, also stand
as a symbol of Birkholz?s life prior to the war, and the suggested necessity to chop them
down in an imagined war situation shows the struggle between Birkholz?s civilian and
military identities. Nevertheless, Birkholz?s metaphorical reference to his recovery
process emanates optimism and suggests that he will find a way back ? or, indeed, a
way forward:
Ihre ?ste sind kahl, aber ein leichter, blauer Hauch h?ngt
in ihnen. Eines Tages werden sie wieder gr?nen und
rauschen, und die Sonne wird wieder warm und selig ?ber
diesem St?ck Erde liegen, das so viele Erinnerungen
meiner Jugend umfa?t (Der Weg, p. 134-35).
In the latter half of the Ausgang near the end of the novel, Remarque continues the
arboreal imagery. Having spent the entire day in the woods, Birkholz rents a room for
105
the night in an inn. Sitting in his room, his senses are heightened to an almost
supernatural level and he becomes aware of life pulsating all around him. Even the
wooden furniture radiates energy: ?Man hat sie vor Jahren gef?llt und zerschnitten,
gehobelt und geleimt zu Dingen des Dienens [?]?. The furniture then begins to creak,
as if alive. Similarly to the manipulated wood of the furniture, the war-veterans have
been artificially moulded to serve a particular purpose. The animism of the wooden
furniture and floorboards therefore aims to show that Birkholz (like these objects)
contains an unconquered ability to return to, what might be termed, his ?natural state? of
life. The day spent in the woods has, in fact, instigated Birkholz?s realization of his
niche in life: ?Nicht jeder braucht ein Pionier zu sein ? es werden auch schw?chere
H?nde und geringere Kr?fte gebraucht werden. Dort will ich meinen Platz suchen? (Der
Weg, p. 310). The novel?s conclusion alludes to this resolution in yet another image
concerning trees, and it thus ties in logically to the name of Birkholz:
[N]eben dem Wege vor der T?r treibt selbst der
zersplitterte, morsche Stamm einer Linde dicke braune
Knospen ? in wenigen Wochen wird er ebenso kleine
seidengr?ne Bl?tter haben, wie die weit verbreiteten ?ste
der Platane, die ihn ?berschatten (Der Weg, p. 312).
  Analogously to the lime tree, Birkholz will settle for modesty, and thus undoubtedly be
overshadowed by more ambitious elements. However, with an aim for the future,
Birkholz has located his ?way back?. Remarque?s message is hence that just as the lime
tree and the poplars will become green again, Birkholz will learn to deal with his past
and experience his own belated springtime in life.
  The symbolic conveyance of Birkholz?s recovery inevitably comes to mind when
reading the opening chapter of Remarque?s next novel, Drei Kameraden in which a
plane tree is said to be standing fully green. Read in succession to Der Weg, there is
106
therefore a suggestion in Kameraden that time has passed. Kameraden is, as a matter of
fact, set almost a decade later than Birkholz?s account. It covers the period from March
1928 to March the following year, and depicts the love between Robert Lohkamp and
Patrice Hollmann. Their relationship is intensified by the fact that Pat has tuberculosis,
which eventually makes irreversible separation through death inevitable. Despite the
fact that Pat?s death is intrinsically natural (as opposed to the killings presented in Im
Westen and Der Weg), she too is indirectly a victim of the war. Her condition was
precipitated by food shortages and subsequently malnutrition during the war. Her death
is therefore presented as equally pointless to those depicted in Remarque?s preceding
two novels. In Kameraden the focus is largely on Pat and her battle against her illness,
but the novel additionally depicts the struggle of the exploited lower social classes to
uphold a tolerable existence. Im Westen, Der Weg and Kameraden therefore all focus on
the battle of the individual against personal extinction, whether this should occur
suddenly in war combat, gradually through illness or through physical and
psychological strains generated by unemployment, poverty or the memory of the war.
This thematic link alone does, however, not validate the categorization of these three
works as a trilogy. In fact, all of Remarque?s novels concentrate on people who have
fallen victim to circumstances beyond their control.
There are, however, also more concrete links between Kameraden and Remarque?s
two preceding novels. The names of Katczin[s]ky, M?ller, Leer and Kemmerich, for
instance, appear, not only as characters in Im Westen and in the memory of Birkholz in
Der Weg, but are also mentioned in Kameraden as fallen comrades of Robert
(Kameraden, p. 259).
19
 The name of Karl Br?ger likewise forms a discrete link between
two of the novels. In Der Weg a character of this name features as a comrade and
107
former school friend of Birkholz; in Kameraden, a Karl Br?ger is said to have been shot
in the coup of 1920.
20
  Another connection between all three novels is insinuated when Robert recalls his
whereabouts in early July 1917. At that time, his company was positioned in Flanders.
Due to severe losses, however, the company was reduced to only thirty-two men
(Kameraden, p. 181). A similar incident is related by B?umer following intensive battle:
?Eine Reihe, eine kurze Reihe tappt in den Morgen hinaus. Zweiunddrei?ig Mann? (Im
Westen, p. 98). In Der Weg too, Birkholz mentions a combat resulting in the survival of
only thirty-two men, and although this episode is said to have taken place only weeks
prior to the start of Birkholz narrative, in the autumn of 1918 (Der Weg, pp. 26-27), the
recurrent figure of thirty-two suggests a bond between the novels. These seemingly
overlapping experiences of the three narrators, in conjunction with their shared
memories of the comrades Kat, Kemmerich, M?ller and Leer suggest that Robert and
Birkholz must both have been present, although anonymously, in the background of
B?umer?s narrative. As already established, there is no reference to soldiers called
Lohkamp and Birkholz in Im Westen. They could, however, have served in B?umer?s
company ? but outside the periphery of his immediate group. Thus, although Im Westen
precedes the creation of the characters Birkholz and Robert, it nonetheless paradoxically
offers a certain level of insight also into their war experiences.
  As typical of Remarque?s work method, Kameraden was the product of considerable
rewriting and revision of several drafts.  An earlier manuscript exists under the title Pat.
This early version of Kameraden includes a short introductory statement which reveals
Remarque?s initial idea of producing a First World War trilogy:
Das vorliegende Buch ist das dritte und letzte einer Reihe,
zu der ?Im Westen nichts Neues? und ?Der Weg zur?ck?
108
geh?ren. Es hat im Grunde das gleiche Thema; [...] die
Frage des Lebens und des Todes; die Frage: Warum?
21
    The manuscript was, however, not submitted for publication.
22
 Instead Remarque
commenced a lengthy revision process which involved significant alterations.
One such amendment consisted in the omission of the exordial statement, which had
unequivocally bound this third novel to the preceding two.
23
 Yet, as shown above, with
regards to both content and form, there remain many similarities between the end-
product, Drei Kameraden, and the two preceding novels. Subsequently, without wishing
to initiate debate on intentional fallacy or Barthes?s concept of ?Death of the Author?, it
is still possible to suggest that Drei Kameraden, also in its final form, comprises a third
and concluding part of, what could be labelled Remarque?s trilogy on the ?lost
generation?, despite the author?s own apparent abandonment of the trilogy-aspect during
the revision process of the Pat-manuscript. Wagener has stated exactly this to be the
case:
Three Comrades is in many respects a continuation of the
preceding two novels, and although Remarque never
intended it as such, it may be considered the final part of a
trilogy.
24
  However, apart from commenting on the three novels? major thematic connection
through topics such as the First World War, the ?lost generation? and comradeship,
Wagener offers little textual evidence to support his point. Indeed, he goes on to
mention what looks like an opposing view, that American reviewers of Kameraden did
not judge this work against Im Westen (as had been done with Der Weg), because ?the
subject matter was so radically different that a comparison did not suggest itself?.
25
Although other critics too have proposed a link between the three novels, their
109
assertions have likewise remained largely unsubstantiated. Careful attention to both
contents and form, however, reveals the close connection between the three novels.
The immediately noticeable modification which Remarque made to the Pat-manuscript
was that of re-titling it Drei Kameraden. This, in effect, shifted the focus from Pat?s
character to the three comrades and former First World War soldiers, K?ster, Lenz and
Lohkamp. Moreover, by using the word ?Kameraden? in his new novel-title, Remarque
came to communicate (through the title alone) the work?s thematic connection to the
First World War. In comparison, a title such as Pat would have been neutral and
uninformative. The term Kameraden is, of course, not solely associated with
comradeship in the army (although the connotation would have been stronger when the
work was written), but can signify relationships in a variety of contexts. However,
Remarque?s reputation as an author of war-literature inevitably affects the reading of the
title, and evokes thoughts particularly of Frontkameradschaft. Amongst the other titles
that Remarque considered for the third novel are, for instance, Auf verlorenem Posten
and Kameraden which, as with the ultimately chosen title, are also reminiscent of war.
26
It must therefore be presumed that Remarque deemed war and its effects to be a central
theme also of the third novel, even if he nonetheless framed it with the love-story
between Pat and Lohkamp. Consequently, in spite of Remarque?s decision to omit the
prologue and thereby erase his explicitly stated connection between Pat and the two
novels preceding it, he created a more subtle link by applying a new title with an
undertone of war.
Whereas the narrator, Birkholz, in Der Weg commences his story at the approximate
time and place where Im Westen concludes, Kameraden does not follow this pattern.
27
Continuity is nonetheless detectable. As Mark Ward rightly concludes in relation to Der
Weg: ?the insight that he [Birkholz] achieves remains untested in the real world to
110
which he will have to return and which he will have to inhabit?.
28
 This is, effectively
what Lohkamp does in Drei Kameraden.
   As with Im Westen and Der Weg, Kameraden has a first-person narrator, Robert
Lohkamp, whose everyday life is spent together with his comrades. Lohkamp, Lenz and
K?ster all work in a garage belonging to the latter. Haim Gordon claims that ?the true
friendship between the three comrades creates a home in the world for themselves and
for others?.
29
 Yet, despite Lohkamp?s lasting connection with Lenz and K?ster, his
narrative reveals a void in his life: ?Es ging mir nicht schlecht, ich hatte Arbeit, ich war
kr?ftig, ich wurde nicht leicht m?de, ich war heil [?] aber es war doch besser, nicht
dar?ber nachzudenken. Besonders nicht, wenn man allein war!? (Kameraden, 9).
30
Whereas B?umer and Birkholz commence their narratives from the midst of their
comrades on the front, and communicate the import of their group identities by
presenting a plural perspective,
31
 Lohkamp?s position at the opening of Drei
Kameraden is noticeably detached and individualistic. The first few paragraphs of the
novel feature only Lohkamp?s character. This isolated position is, shortly after, mirrored
in his narrative, where his continued use of the pronoun ich indicates an unambiguous
singular stance. On Lohkamp?s thirtieth birthday, for instance, the three friends visit an
inn where they encounter Pat for the first time. However, rather than participating in the
general conversation, Lohkamp?s narrative reflects introversion:
Ich hielt mein Glas in der Hand. Der Rum schimmerte. Ich
dachte an den Zettel, den ich morgens in der Werkstatt
geschrieben hatte. Ich war etwas traurig gewesen. Ich war
es jetzt nicht mehr. Es war alles gleich ? solange man
lebte. Ich sah K?ster an. Ich h?rte, wie er mit dem
M?dchen sprach; aber ich achtete nicht auf die Worte. Ich
sp?rte den weichen Glanz der ersten Trunkenheit, der das
Blut w?rmer machte und den ich liebte [?] [my
emphases] (Kameraden, p. 18).
111
  Lohkamp?s behaviour bears resemblance to a description by Ernst Glaeser?s
protagonist in Frieden of the men who have returned from the battlefront: ?M?nner, die
nicht lachten, sondern oft abseits sahen, als h?tten sie sich verirrt?.
32
 Lohkamp?s liking
for alcohol is revealed to consist in its ability to efface his memory of the past
temporarily,
33
 but also the reality of his present with its ?Trostlosigkeit der ?den
m?blierten Zimmer? and ?Verzweiflung der Existenz? (Kameraden, p. 20). The
inclusion of the adjective ?de reinforces the impression of loneliness, despite
Lohkamp?s durable friendship with Lenz and K?ster. When the three of them conclude
Lohkamp?s birthday in another drinking establishment, Freddys Bar, the maritime
vocabulary and similes inevitably call to mind the expression of ?drowning one?s
sorrows?:
[?] und aus den Schwaden hob sich wie ein erleuchtetes,
buntes Schiff Freddys Bar. Wir gingen mit Karl vor
Anker. Golden flo? der Kognak, der Gin gl?nzte wie
Aquamarin, und der Rum war das Leben selbst. Eisern
sa?en wir auf den Barst?hlen, die Musik pl?tscherte, das
Dasein war hell und stark; es flo? m?chtig durch unsere
Brust, [?] die Bartheke war die Kommandobr?cke des
Lebens, und wir fuhren brausend in die Zukunft
(Kameraden, pp. 19-20).
  Lohkamp?s assumption of a plural perspective in this excerpt correlates with his
temporary escape from loneliness through alcohol. However, the following morning,
soberness and reality again govern the narrative. The contrast to the drunken passage
above is striking:
Ich zog mich sehr langsam an. Das gab mir das Gef?hl
von Sonntag. Ich wusch mich, ich wanderte im Zimmer
umher, ich las die Zeitung, ich br?hte den Kaffee auf, ich
stand am Fenster und sah zu, wie die Stra?e gesprengt
wurde, ich h?rte die V?gel singen [?]. Ich w?hlte
112
zwischen meinen paar Hemden und Str?mpfen, als h?tte
ich zwanzigmal soviel, ich leerte pfeifend meine Taschen
aus [?] [my emphases] (Kameraden, p. 20).
  The reiteration of ich stands out, but attention is furthermore brought to this personal
pronoun through the staccato effect caused by the almost consistently asyndetic clause-
coordination. Lohkamp?s soberness also influences the general tone of the narrative and,
despite whistling, his matter-of-fact, short clauses, which are devoid of similes and
sparse of adjectives, convey boredom and indifference. Although essentially describing
Lohkamp?s Sunday-routine, the excerpt also serves to demonstrate the triviality which
has characterized Lohkamp?s life since the war. In the opening chapter, when reflecting
upon the years from 1918 to the narrated present, Lohkamp recalls only few memorable
events. He has no recollection, for instance, of his whereabouts in 1921: ?Das Jahr fehlte
einfach? (Kameraden, 8), and following the culmination of the inflation in 1923, the
occurrences of the years become indistinct: ?Und dann? Die Jahre darauf? Ich legte den
Bleistift hin. Hatte keinen Zweck, das alles nachzurechnen. Ich wu?te es auch nicht
mehr so genau. War zu sehr durcheinandergegangen? (Kameraden, 8). Lohkamp?s
laconic summary of the post-war years reflects emotional apathy and lack of
engagement in life; a consequence of the war-experience, which is described already in
Im Westen nichts Neues.
34
 Lohkamp?s indifference does, however, also offer an element
of comparison to the overall time-scale of Drei Kameraden. Whereas Lohkamp relates
the events of more than a decade in barely two pages (Kameraden, pp. 7-8), the rest of
the novel covers only one year. This considerable difference in space (or author-time)
allocated respectively to the time before and after Pat enters Lohkamp?s life, helps
communicate the impact she comes to exercise on his interest in life, and thus on his
perception of time.
35
113
   Despite the fact that Lohkamp introduces his story from a more individual standpoint
than B?umer and Birkholz do in Im Westen nichts Neues and Der Weg zur?ck, his
comradeship to K?ster and Lenz nonetheless forms the focal point of his existence. At
the beginning, the inclusive wir (when it occurs) generally refers to this trio (or quartet,
if counting Karl, the zoomorphized car), but when Lohkamp meets Pat, this gradually
changes. Pat is adopted into the group, and she and Lohkamp regularly function as
individual members of this larger group. However, the two of them likewise associate as
a complete unit detached from the main group, and this sub-formation eventually comes
to persist also when in company with others. In fact, Lohkamp?s transmission from
being predominantly a comrade to taking up a serious relationship with Pat is finalized
at a particular moment at which Lohkamp consciously chooses Pat over his comrades:
K?ster hielt in der N?he des Friedhofs. [?] Wir [Pat und
Lohkamp] stiegen aus. Die beiden [K?ster und Lenz]
sausten sofort weiter, ohne sich unzusehen. Ich blickte
ihnen nach. Einen Augenblick war das sonderbar. Sie
fuhren ab, meine Kameraden fuhren ab, und ich blieb
zur?ck, blieb zur?ck. [?]
?Ich [Pat] will nicht, da? du meinetwegen etwas aufgibst.?
?Was f?llt dir ein?, fragte ich, ?was gebe ich denn auf??
?Deine Kameraden . . .? [?] ?Du warst fr?her viel mehr
mit ihnen zusammen.?
?Weil du nicht da warst?, erwiderte ich [?] (Kameraden,
pp. 140-41).
  Although relating to German soldiers? psychological impact of the Second World War,
the metaphorical image of travelling by tram which Heinrich B?ll applies in his short
story, Gesch?ft ist Gesch?ft, could equally be used to describe Lohkamp?s situation in
the quotation above:
114
Und als wir nach Hause kamen, sind sie aus dem Krieg
ausgestiegen wie aus einer Stra?enbahn [?]. [?] Wir
aber fuhren inzwischen weiter mit der Stra?enbahn und
warteten, ob irgendwo eine Station k?me, die uns bekannt
genug vorgekommen w?re, da? wie auszusteigen riskiert
h?tten: die Haltestelle kam nicht. [?] [D]ie Endstation
kam nicht [?].
36
  Lohkamp had indeed achieved some level of stability in his existence prior to meeting
Pat, but this stability was characterized by indifference. In view of the previous novel,
Der Weg, it can be argued that Lohkamp, only after meeting Pat, begins to steer away
from the war and from his role as predominantly a soldier and Kamerad. In contrast to
B?ll?s first-person narrator in Gesch?ft ist Gesch?ft, who does not dare to leave the tram
at any of the stops (expressed in his use of the subjunctive ?riskiert h?tten?), Lohkamp
takes the chance. He gets out of the car with Pat, and observes how K?ster and Lenz
drive away without looking back. Through this action, Lohkamp effectively chooses a
specific civilian life, represented by Pat.
   It is significant that they get out of the car next to the cemetery, a location which is
bound to the development of their relationship. It is, for instance, in the cemetery that
Lohkamp starts addressing Pat with the informal du. However, Pat?s illness eventually
proves fatal, so when she and Lohkamp disembark at the cemetery, this is indirectly to
become her ?stop? (to return to Gesch?ft ist Gesch?ft). Following Pat?s death at the end
of the novel, Lohkamp, however, gets back on the figurative tram, at which point his
indifferent tone suggests that he, similarly to B?ll?s narrator, determines that there is
indeed no terminus or Weg zur?ck.
   The fact that Pat gives Lohkamp?s existence a purpose reflects one of the marked
differences between Lohkamp and Remarque?s earlier narrators, B?umer and Birkholz.
The latter are both largely preoccupied with aspects of life related to survival (physical
as well as psychological), whereas Lohkamp comes to pursue quality of life through his
115
relationship with Pat. She, on the other hand, is in a situation not dissimilar to that of
B?umer and Birkholz, as she too must deal with the possibility of premature, personal
extinction through circumstances beyond her control. Thus, despite not having
experienced the battle front, the circumstances of Pat?s character nonetheless make her
function as a link to the previous two works.
   Pat?s condition is not disclosed until approximately halfway through the novel, and
yet allusions to death pervade Lohkamp?s narrative from the beginning. There is, for
instance, a considerable amount of vocabulary commonly associated with death, and
certain settings automatically induce images of demise in the mind of the reader. These
implicit references to death are especially prolific in relation to two aspects of the novel:
Pat?s character and Lohkamp?s memories of the war. The adjective geisterhaft, for
example, is used time and again in descriptions of Pat, but also in Lohkamp?s
flashbacks of his years on the front. This parallel between Pat and war suggests a
connection between the two, and signals that Pat, similar to a First World War soldier,
moves in a sphere between life and death.
37
 To further this notion, Ferdinand Grau, a
painter otherwise specializing in producing portraits of deceased people, offers to paint
Pat. At this point, her illness has not yet been revealed. However, the ghostly
impression of her character is perhaps conveyed most clearly when she and Lohkamp,
after a day at the racetrack, sit on a bench in the cemetery next to Lohkamp?s boarding
house. The location alone suggests death and decay; an association which is furthered
by the dense fog on that particular evening. Indeed, despite the fact that their
relationship is, at this time, still at its initial stage, the entire passage reflects gloom and
finality:
Der Nebel machte alles unwirklich ? auch uns. [?] [Mir
schien], als sei sie [Pat] geisterhaft anger?hrt worden von
116
dem Wehen in den Wipfeln, von dem feuchten Rinnen die
St?mme hinab, als lausche sie auf einen dunklen,
unh?rbaren Ruf hinter den B?umen, hinter der Welt, als
m?sse sie gleich aufstehen und fortgehen, durch den
Nebel [?]. [?] Der Nebel zog und zog. Die Kreuze der
Grabsteine ragten bla? aus den Schwaden. Ich deckte
meinen Mantel ?ber uns. Die Stadt war versunken. Die
Zeit war gestorben . . . (Kameraden, pp. 103-04).
   The episode in the cemetery is equally interesting in relation to the narrative
perspective. In contrast to Im Westen and Der Weg, Kameraden is narrated entirely in
the past tense and is subsequently lacking the immediateness that characterizes
B?umer?s and Birkholz?s present-tense narratives. This makes Kameraden appear less
dramatic, as the past tense automatically creates distance between the reader and the
story told. On a single occasion, however, (in the episode on the cemetery) the tense
changes, resulting in the focus shifting from Lohkamp?s past self in the story, to
Lohkamp, the narrator: ?Nie werde ich dieses [Pats] Gesicht vergessen ? nie werde ich
vergessen, wie es sich dann zu mir neigte [?] [my emphases]? (Kameraden, p. 104). In
this statement, Lohkamp?s narrator-present overlaps with the narrated present and,
although only occurring briefly, the direct observation of Lohkamp (the narrator) gives
this character, and thus his story, added tenability.
38
 Aside from this incident, the entire
novel, including Pat?s death, is related in the past tense. Hence, when Lohkamp
describes Pat in ghostly terms prior to revealing her illness to the reader (and when he
himself had yet no knowledge of it), this merely reflects the fact that he is narrating in
hindsight.
39
   There are nevertheless aspects of the register which appear to function independently
from Lohkamp?s retrospection. Regardless of his use of the past tense, Lohkamp?s
narrative emits a certain level of immediateness, achieved through careful manipulation
of the register. His changing address of Pat, for example, communicates the
117
development of their relationship. Although Lohkamp?s narrator-present cannot be
determined, the past tense indicates that it must be later than March 1929, the time of
Pat?s demise and the novel?s conclusion. At that point, the relationship between
Lohkamp and Pat had reached a depth and durability comparable to the comradeship
which the soldiers experienced during the war, and which B?umer describes through
most of Im Westen. However, when Lohkamp relates his initial acquaintance with Pat,
he refers to her in the full name of Patrice Hollmann. Parallel to this, there are occasions
on which he simply calls her ?das M?dchen?; an impersonal address which shows that
Lohkamp, at that time, was not yet emotionally involved. The formalness equally
conveys his respect for Pat and his intent to make a good impression. As their
relationship develops, ?Patrice Hollmann? becomes ?Pat? and Lohkamp assumes a more
relaxed tone, characterized, for instance, by the occasional insertion of an emphasizing
?verflucht?, even in Pat?s presence. Antkowiak?s claim that the language in Kameraden
is ?rauhbauzig?, ?breit-beh?big? and ?bier-b?uchig? is nonetheless exaggerated, and can
only be regarded as the result of that critic?s fixation with the fact that Remarque did not
take a more overt political stance in his novels.
40
 Considering that Lohkamp is narrating
with hindsight, the gradual change in his formality in relation to Pat seems unnatural.
He would, for instance, not use her full name in his narrative, apart from possibly in an
initial introduction of her character. Thus, although voiced by Lohkamp, parts of the
register appear to derive from an external mind (Remarque?s), and to have been
manipulated to correlate with the plot.  Hence, although offering solely Lohkamp?s
verbalized presentation of his relationship to Pat, Remarque simultaneously shows the
reader the gradual development of this relationship through, for example, his narrator?s
language.
118
  In contrast to the present tense of Im Westen and Der Weg, the past tense of
Kameraden has a legitimizing effect on the occasional inconsistencies in the narrative
perspective. A particular episode depicts K?ster and the doctor, Jaff??s, journey from
Berlin to Fr?ulein M?ller?s house where Pat has fallen ill. Robert does not experience
the journey as it unfolds, but he justifies his detailed knowledge of the trip: ?Sp?ter
h?rte ich von Jaff?, wie es gewesen war? (Kameraden, p. 193). Nonetheless within the
doctor?s account, there appears to be information that exceeds his perspective too.
Before K?ster, for instance, locates the whereabouts of the doctor and picks him up,
??berfuhr [er] alle Verkehrszeichen ? er k?mmerte sich nicht um die heranst?rzenden
Schupos. Er ri? den Wagen wie ein Pferd durch den Verkehr? (Kameraden, p. 193).
Jaff? did not experience this since K?ster, at that point in time, had not found him yet.
Equally, Jaff? was made to believe that the journey was relatively short; K?ster ?wollte
den Arzt nicht vorzeitig erschrecken? (Kameraden, p. 193). Yet, because the novel is
narrated in the past tense, such inconsistencies are explainable and do not jeopardize the
plausibility of Lohkamp?s story: K?ster could, for instance, have given the doctor this
added information in the course of their journey or he could have told his account of the
drive directly to Lohkamp at a later date.
K?ster and Jaff??s car journey is the only lengthy passage presented from a seemingly
different perspective. Nevertheless, the perspective appears to become temporarily
omniscient on a number of occasions. This is, for instance, the case when Lenz?s killer
hides from the police: ?Da? K?ster und Alfons hinter ihm her waren, wu?te er nicht?
(Kameraden, p. 330). At the time, Lohkamp could not have known of the killer?s
unawareness, but it is possible that he later acquired this information. Despite lacking
the same level of immediateness as a present-tense-narrative, the past tense thus holds
119
the advantage that the first-person narrator can deviate slightly from the otherwise
limited perspective, without jeopardizing the story?s credibility.
  Whereas Der Weg zur?ck concludes with Birkholz looking to the future, but offering
only a vague picture of what it may encompass,
41
 Drei Kameraden depicts elaborately
the ?ways back?, chosen by three former soldiers. Aside from all working in the Auto-
Reparatur-Werkstatt K?ster und Co, Lohkamp, Lenz and K?ster each develop their own
passion through which they assuage their war-memories: Lenz engages in politics,
Lohkamp concentrates on his relationship to Pat, and K?ster occasionally competes in
car-racing with his car, Karl.
   The naming of the vehicle and the recurring zoomorphic presentation of it inevitably
brings to mind the image of a loyal dog, rather than a car. This notion is reinforced by
Lohkamp?s use of similes in which the vehicle is ?Hund? or ?Wolf? (Kameraden, pp.
176, 351, 361), but also through general references to the car as a sentient being:
?Dreckbespritzt, mit h?ngenden Ohren, stand er [Karl] im Schnee. Wollen wir ihn
waschen, fragte ich. Nein, nicht unterwegs, sagte K?ster. Das nimmt er ?bel?
(Kameraden, p. 350).
  This description of the car creates a link to Der Weg, in which Birkholz indeed has a
dog ? named Wolf. His depiction of it as ?ein Kriegshund, ein alter Soldat? and as
having ?[ein] zerschossenes Ohr? (Der Weg, 217, 219) leaves an impression not
dissimilar to that of the car in Kameraden: Despite the scruffy exterior, the dog and the
car are, in essence, both loyal and good-natured. Lohkamp, Lenz and especially
K?ster?s compassion for the car is not irrational. Despite the car?s pathetic body, it
conceals a powerful engine which Lohkamp refers to as ?das gro?e Herz eines
Rennmotors? (Kameraden, p. 13). This description is, however, in a modified version,
equally applicable to the three comrades who, although depicted sympathetically, enjoy
120
only little status in a society governed by materialism and appearance. They are, to
quote Jeglin and Pickerodt, ?weiche Kerle in harter Schale?.
42
 Lohkamp, Lenz and
K?ster thus identify with the car which may be the reason for their inclusion of it in
their midst. If the car is likened to a pet or even a fellow war comrade, then the races it
participates in become simulated battles. Indeed, if juxtaposing the vocabulary
employed to describe warfare in Im Westen with the one used in Kameraden to depict
the atmosphere at the racetrack, there are considerable parallels. In his description of the
Western front, B?umer notes: ?Die Absch?sse krachen, da? unser Wagen bebt, das Echo
rollt tosend hinterher [?]? (Im Westen, p. 44). ?Es sind kleinere Geschosse; -
dazwischen orgeln aber auch die gro?en Kohlenk?sten [?]? (Im Westen, p. 48), and
?wenige Minuten sp?ter heult die Luft, die Erde bebt? (Im Westen, p. 162). Lohkamp
describes the race in similar terms: ?Das Geknatter der Motoren wanderte wie
Maschinengewehrfeuer um die Bahn? (Kameraden, p. 96). ?Das Donnern der Motoren
?bert?nte alles Weitere. Die Luft bebte. Erde und Himmel bebten. [?] In das
verklingende Tosen orgelten die Lautsprecher? (Kameraden, p. 98). The war image is
continued when Lenz almost gets involved in a brawl with one of the competing drivers.
He is restrained by Lohkamp who says: ?La? den Quatsch [?]. Wozu willst du schon
vorher ins Lazarett!? (Kameraden, p. 97). Equally, as the cars steer into their final and
decisive round, Lohkamp speaks of the ?Endkampf? (Kameraden, p. 99). In fact, even
the party?s retreat to enjoy a picnic after the race resembles a company?s return to the
Hinterland for recuperation and a meal following a battle; not least because Pat notes
about the full picnic basket: ?[D]as ist ja f?r ein Regiment? (Kameraden, p. 101).
  Initially, the connection between war and car-racing seems distant. However, in
context, when considering the sense of comradeship which both events elicit, the
comparison becomes more apparent. The race indeed represents an important incident
121
with regards to Pat?s integration into the group. It is on this occasion that Lenz, as the
first of the three friends, addresses her by her first name: ?Also auf gute Kameradschaft,
Pat!? (Kameraden, p. 96). Similarly, Pat?s own sensation of amalgamation with the
group is conveyed in her application of the inclusive ?wir? when telling the barman and
former soldier, Alfons, about Karl?s victory in the race: ??Wir haben gewonnen,
Alfons!? rief sie [my emphasis]? (Kameraden, p. 101). The exclamation mark signals
her excitement about the outcome of the race and thus, indirectly, also her growing
sense of belonging to the group.
  Although Drei Kameraden essentially focuses on a small circle of friends, it
additionally introduces a considerable number of minor characters, much like Der Weg.
These constitute mostly victims in one way or another. The novel therefore not only
portrays the personal misfortune of Pat, but shows miscellaneous faces of suffering. It
presents the reader with a critical picture of the continued exploitation by a system and
its entrepreneurs of a population struggling with both an increasing unemployment rate
and the psychological ballast of the outcome of the war and the perceived imposition of
the Treaty of Versailles.
These peripheral characters initially appear to be depicted uncompromisingly one-
dimensionally. However, the presentation of the characters in Kameraden is based
entirely on the opinion of the first-person narrator Lohkamp, who is not actually
acquainted with many of these individuals. He merely observes their suffering
empathetically and the black-and-white presentation is thus both warranted and
credible. A vast majority of those who are victimized or suffer (and particularly those
who do so in silence) are portrayed sympathetically. In the hospital, for instance,
Lohkamp notices about the first patient he encounters: ?Die Stirn war edel? [my
emphasis] (Kameraden, p. 233). Similarly, a man from whom Lohkamp and K?ster buy
122
a taxi notes down his address ?eifrig mit seinen schweren, ehrlichen H?nden? [my
emphases] (Kameraden, p. 115), when K?ster states that the garage may be able to offer
this man employment. The adjectives ?eifrig? and ?ehrlich? insinuate that this man is
both hardworking and honest. In contrast, many of those in auspicious financial
situations or (after Pat?s illness has been unveiled, those who are blessed with good
health) are depicted as disagreeable. Guido Thie?, who also wishes to purchase the taxi
from the hardworking, honest man ? preferably as cheaply as possible ? is thus
described as ?unangenehm forsch? (Kameraden, 112). Analogously, in the vicinity of
the sanatorium, Lohkamp takes dislike to the healthy look of some female skiers: ?Ein
Paar mit ?l eingeschmierte Frauen mit kr?ftigen, sonnverbrannten Gesichtern und
breiten, wei?en Gebissen waren dabei. Sie schrien sich zu, da? sie Hunger wie die
W?lfe h?tten. [?] ?So was lebt nat?rlich?, sagte ich. ?Lebt und ist gesund bis in die
Knochen. Zum Kotzen!?? (Kameraden, p. 348). The description of these women clearly
serves as a contrast to that of the slender and geisterhaftigen Pat.
  Many of the episodes surrounding minor characters have the purpose of depicting
victims; thereby showing the universality of suffering. Such episodes include
Lohkamp?s visit to the bookmaker?s; his tour in the hospital and his visit to the
museum. In the betting shop, Lohkamp notices two men. ?Sie hatten jeder ein Ticket in
den H?nden, aber ihre Gesichter waren so eingefallen, als h?tten sie seit Tagen nichts
gegessen? (Kameraden, p. 242). Then:
In diesem Augenblick kippte jemand um. Es war einer der
mageren Leute, die vorn neben den Tischen gestanden
hatten. Er rutschte an der Wand entlang und schlug hart
auf die Erde. [?] Ich wunderte mich, wie wenige Leute
sich um den Ohnm?chtigen k?mmerten. Die meisten
sahen nur fl?chtig hin, dann wandten sie sich wieder den
Wetten zu (Kameraden, p. 244).
123
  The lack of response from the crowd testifies that signs of starvation are not unusual,
and that the general population is without excess funds or energy to aid those in severe
need. The widespread indigence is likewise conveyed in the museum, where Lohkamp
expresses his surprise with regards to the crowded exhibition halls. A guard in the
museum explains: ?Das sind fast alles Arbeitslose. Die kommen nicht wegen der Kunst,
sondern weil sie nichts zu tun haben. [?] Jetzt ist das noch gar nichts [?]. Im Winter
m?ssen Sie mal kommen! Da ist alles proppenvoll. Wegen der Heizung? (Kameraden,
p. 268). When given a tour of a hospital, Lohkamp equally describes the silent pain
which he witnesses also there.
43
 A similar image of widespread suffering (quoted also in
the chapter on Im Westen) is offered by B?umer, when he is hospitalized:
Man kann nicht begreifen, da? ?ber so zerrissenen
Leibern noch Menschengesichtern sind, in denen das
Leben seinen allt?glichen Fortgang nimmt. Und dabei ist
dies nur ein einziges Lazarett, nur eine einzige Station ?
es gibt hunderttausende in Deutschland, Hunderttausende
in Frankreich, Hunderttausende in Ru?land (Im Westen, p.
177).
  Drei Kameraden depicts the ubiquity of misery by utilizing language and narrative
perspective in a similar manner. When Lohkamp concludes that the Hasses? marital
problems derive from financial deprivation, he states: ?Ich dachte daran, da? es
Millionen solcher Menschen gab und das es immer nur das bi?chen Sicherheit und das
bi?chen Geld war? (Kameraden, p. 253). As in B?umer?s statement, above, Lohkamp
also makes use of the non-specific pronoun man to divert the attention away from his
own character and reflect a wider, more general attitude: ?[D]as Leben war zu dreckig
geworden f?r das Gl?ck, [?] man glaubte nicht mehr daran [my emphasis]?
(Kameraden, p. 254).
124
  It is in particular the endurance and resoluteness with which many of the characters
seek to escape the harshness of their existences (mostly fruitlessly) that awakes
sympathy in the reader. To reinforce this effect, Remarque applies a technique which he
also makes use of in many of his other novels. By incorporating more or less obvious
comparisons of the characters to helpless children, he appeals to the reader?s protective
side. In Kameraden, this is especially the case in relation to Lohkamp?s character.
Despite the fact that the three friends in their childhood attended school together, ?alte[r]
Vater Lenz? addresses Lohkamp as ?Kind?, ?Kindchen?, ?Baby?, ?der Junge? and
?Knabe? respectively (Kameraden, pp. 156, 46-47). Pat likewise calls him a ?Kindskopf?
(Kameraden, pp. 91, 94).
   One of the principal common (but by no means straightforward) themes of Im Westen
nichts Neues and Der Weg zur?ck is that of comradeship. This is, as the title also
indicates, continued in Drei Kameraden, and not only with reference to the close bond
between K?ster, Lenz and Lohkamp. In conversation with Pat, Lohkamp expresses his
affection for her using inadequate, male-and-war-orientated terms. This does not
invalidate his sincerity, however, but rather suggests that his feelings are as intense as
those he felt for his comrades in the trenches. Teaching Pat to drive on their first date,
Lohkamp therefore, somewhat unusually, describes the relaxed atmosphere between
them as ?ein Gef?hl von Kameradschaft? (Kameraden, 68). His recurring address of her
as ?alter, tapferer Bursche? or ?alter, guter Bursche? (Kameraden, pp. 345, 363) likewise
reflects his emotional involvement ? possibly even to a greater extent than his
occasional, traditional compliments. In using such address, Lohkamp in fact equals their
relationship to that between front soldiers and therefore indirectly communicates the
closeness he feels to Pat. The notion of Pat being a comrade is furthered through her
boyish stature. Lohkamp describes her as ?eine schmale, junge Amazone? (Kameraden,
125
p. 33); points out that she has a surprisingly deep voice (Kameraden, p. 15) and
suggests that her hands are ?eher etwas knochig als weich? (Kameraden, p. 17). Yet,
descriptions of her physique are repeatedly intersected with the adjective ?schmal?
(Kameraden, pp. 14, 122, 159, 359) which, in combination with her boyish build and
Lohkamp?s reference to her as a comrade, bring to mind the young recruits in Im Westen
who likewise resembled children rather than soldiers:
[D]en meisten ist die Uniform zu weit, sie schlottert um
die Glieder, die Schultern sind zu schmal, die K?rper sind
zu gering, es gab keine Uniformen, die f?r dieses
Kinderma? eingerichtet waren (Im Westen, p. 95).
  In Der Weg, the same technique is used in relation to the character Giesecke who
seems physically fragile and childlike: ?Er hat ein schmales, gelbes Gesicht und sieht
mit dem spitzen Kinn und den abstehenden Ohren viel j?nger aus als fr?her? (Der Weg,
p. 144). Both Pat and the recruits in Im Westen are described as facing death ? or their
?terminus? ? with bravery, and the impression of courage is intensified by their frail,
child-resembling exterior. This combination of physical weakness and bravery is a
means of creating sympathy, and a technique utilized in many of Remarque?s novels.
44
Although Lohkamp depicts Pat as a courageous figure, he presents himself as an anti-
hero. His friends? addressing of him as ?Knabe?, ?Kindchen?, ?Baby? and ?Junge?
suggests that Lohkamp is not particularly authoritative. Hence, at the outset of the story
as the three men celebrate Lohkamp?s birthday, the latter remains quietly in the
background, whilst Lenz proceeds to call Pat by her first name. Lohkamp subsequently
points out his own inadequacy: ?Ich starrte ihn an. W?hrend ich immer noch mit der
Anrede herumlavierte, machte er am hellen Nachmittag unverfroren solche Sachen!?
(Kameraden, p. 96). With regards to his own character, however, Lohkamp is what
126
Wayne Booth has called an unreliable narrator.
45
  Pat even says about him: ?Du bist
?berhaupt ganz anders, als du denkst. Ich habe selten jemand gesehen, der so ?ber sich
selber im Irrtum ist wie du? (Kameraden, p. 213). Remarque thus manages to preserve
Lohkamp?s modest nature simultaneously to depicting him as a worthy hero of his
novel.
  Lohkamp proposes that life exists only in ?das Gef?hl und der Abglanz der Tr?ume?,
whereas reality is ?trostlos und Fahl? (Kameraden, p. 38). Escapism through illusion is
an aspect which pervades the entire novel, and a strategy applied (often subconsciously)
by many of the characters to cope with the grimness of their realities. Hasse, Georg and
Rosa are three such examples. Illusions are, however, also woven into the lives of Pat
and Lohkamp, not to mention K?ster, whose perception of his car, Karl, is almost that
of an imaginary friend ? or perhaps, in this case, comrade.
  Proposing a connection between courage and ?the unconcealing of truth?, Haim
Gordon points to Pat and Lohkamp as two ?courageous persons who struggle to
unconceal truths and encourage others to see and to relate to these unconcealed truths.
Lohkamp and Pat unconceal truths about the beauty of love [?]?. Gordon continues:
?Remarque?s novels indicate that the blending of courage with the quest to unconceal
truth is crucial for a worthy life, and also for both heroism and friendship to emerge?.
46
However, even at the end of the novel, Lohkamp and Pat continue to evade the topic of
Pat?s terminal illness. Shortly before her death, Lohkamp still pretends: ?[W]enn der
F?hn aufh?rt, dann wird es dir besser gehen, und wir werden hier fortfahren?
(Kameraden, p. 380). At this stage, Pat takes a more realistic stand, but Lohkamp
recoils: ?Wir wollen nicht mehr dar?ber sprechen? (Kameraden, p. 380). Pat and
Lohkamp have found in each other a means of escape from reality, and it is therefore
exactly the concealing of the truth (not the opposite, as Gordon proposes) that adds
127
worth to their relationship and lives. On their first date, for instance, Lohkamp
spontaneously adopts Lenz?s travel adventures in South America as his own: ?Ich h?rte
mich sprechen, aber es war, als w?re ich es nicht mehr, als spr?che jetzt ein anderer, der
ich h?tte sein m?gen? (Kameraden, p. 38). Concurrently, Pat withholds the truth about
her illness and in this manner evades reality. Despite his expressed sympathy for these
two characters, Gordon paradoxically rejects the Jewish students in Liebe Deinen
N?chsten, because they ?lack the courage to live with a despicable truth which confronts
them?;
47
 yet, this is exactly what also Lohkamp and Pat do.
   Illusion continues to characterize the lives of Pat and Lohkamp as the former is
admitted to a sanatorium. The buildings and their interior design alone resemble, as
Lohkamp notes, a hotel rather than a hospital: ?Ich hatte erwartet, es w?re wie ein
Krankenhaus eingerichtet; aber es glich wenigstens im unteren Stock, viel mehr einem
Hotel. In der Halle brannte ein Kamin, und eine Anzahl kleiner Tische war mit
Teegeschierr gedeckt? (Kameraden, p. 290). Even a bar, Pat explains: ?[?] geh?rt zur
Behandlung. Alles vermeiden, was nach Krankenhaus aussieht? (Kameraden, p. 346).
   The sanatorium is, perhaps not surprisingly, a place in which the topic of death is
shunned. On Lohkamp?s inquires to one of the other patients, Pat?s answer is vague:
??Abgereist?, [?] und ich begriff, was sie meinte? (Kameraden, p. 347-48). This
euphemistic use of the word abreisen is utilized symbolically towards the end of the
novel as Pat?s condition worsens.
48
 Returning home from an annual ball, knowing that
she will not attend any more such parties, Pat packs away her dress in a suitcase. The
fact that she chooses the case as opposed to the wardrobe communicates her awareness
of her own approaching death or Abreise.
  The episode of the ball is interesting in as far as it assumes what Boa and Reid call an
extrinsic, thematic pattern, ?the retelling of an archetypal story in contemporary guise or
128
with contemporary implications?:
49
 In this case, the narrative exhibits obvious parallels
to the popular version of the Grimm fairytale of Cinderella. Prior to the ball, for
instance, Pat has to alter an old dress which has become to large for her, and on the
evening, the transport to the village consists of horse-drawn sledges rather than cars:
?[F]estlich nickten die bunten Federb?schel auf den K?pfen der Pferde im Mondlicht?
(Kameraden, pp. 368-69). At the party, it is the first time Pat and Robert dance together:
?Ihre silbernen Schuhe ber?hrten kaum den Boden? (Kameraden, p. 370). The illusion is
furthermore terminated suddenly for both Pat and the real Cinderella. Whereas the
magic in the fairytale dissolves at midnight, causing the dress, horses and carriage to
evaporate, Pat?s strength is used up, and although only indirectly, her dress too
disappears as she packs it away in the suitcase.
  Following the ball Pat?s health declines rapidly and she dies shortly after. At the
conclusion of the novel, the illusions have dispersed for the three comrades, as the war
indirectly continues to haunt them: Lenz has been killed by National Socialists
following a political meeting,
50
 and although his death is not unequivocally connected
to the war, the surges of political instability during the Weimar period were, at least in
part, a product of the discontent that followed the defeat of the war. Lohkamp loses Pat,
who dies from tuberculosis originating in malnutrition during the war (Kameraden, p.
349), and K?ster eventually sells Karl to subsidize Lohkamp, his former war comrade,
so that he can afford to stay with Pat in the sanatorium until her death. In addition to
losing Pat, Lenz and Karl, both the garage and the taxi have been sold, both of which
could have offered the basis for a livelihood and daily routine for the two remaining
friends. Thus, contrary to the relatively positive note on which Der Weg concludes, at
least for Birkholz personally, Drei Kameraden presents a more pessimistic outlook. It
shows how the war continues to exercise a negative effect on the lives of the former
129
soldiers and on society at large, even a decade after the war. Having lost Pat and thereby
failed the attempt to move on, Lohkamp reverts to the detached and singular perspective
from which he narrated at the opening of the novel:
Ich habe ihr dann das Blut abgewaschen. Ich war aus
Holz. Ich habe ihr das Haar gek?mmt. Sie wurde kalt. Ich
habe sie in mein Bett gelegt und die Decken ?ber sie
gedeckt. Ich habe bei ihr gesessen, und ich konnte nichts
denken. Ich habe auf dem Stuhl gesessen und sie
angestarrt. Der Hund kam herein und setzte sich zu mir.
Ich habe gesehen, wie ihr Gesicht anders wurde. Ich
konnte nichts tun, als leer dasitzen und sie ansehen. Dann
kam der Morgen, und sie war es nicht mehr [my
emphases] (Kameraden, p. 383).
  These words conclude the novel. There is no indication as to what befalls K?ster and
Lohkamp after Pat?s death. However, at this point, the work?s use of the past tense gains
added significance, because it suggests that a sense of nothingness continues to
dominate Lohkamp?s life, certainly until his narrator-present. Thus, the gloom which
underlies the love story (expressed, for instance, in the frequent use of terminology
associated with death) reflects Lohkamp?s attitude at the time of narrating. This
suggests that he does not move on following the death of Pat. Instead, the statement:
?Ich konnte nichts tun, als leer dasitzen [?]. [S]ie war es nicht mehr? and the matter-of-
fact tone of the final paragraph indicate that Lohkamp?s life will continue to be
characterized by indifference and emptiness. Unlike Birkholz, he is unsuccessful in
finding a ?way back?.
   In the early manuscript, Pat, the death of the young woman does not conclude the
novel. Remarque relates the ending in a synopsis of his novel:
Beide [Lohkamp and K?ster] sind ohne Arbeit ? aber sie
klagen nicht ? sie sehen sich an. Ohne viele Worte gehen
130
sie in das Leben zur?ck ? in den Kampf ? geschlagen ?
aber nicht vernichtet, ohne Hoffnung, aber ungebrochen,
mutig und ohne Furcht ---- wieder SOLDATEN IN DER
GROSSEN ARMEE DES LEBENS.
51
Although this version shows Lohkamp to be ?nicht vernichtet? and ?ungebrochen?
despite Pat?s death, it still ends without a solution or closure for Lohkamp. Indeed, the
final words and especially their capitalization imply that the war remains a central part
of the two men?s identities. The concluding lines furthermore suggest that Lohkamp and
K?ster are but two of an army of men. Regarding the perspective, the conclusion of
Remarque?s early manuscript, Pat, therefore resembles that of Im Westen which (as
discussed in the previous chapter)
52
 concluded by presenting B?umer as just another
victim of the war. What Remarque proposes is that the exact identity of all three
narrators, B?umer, Birkholz and Lohkamp is, in fact, relatively insignificant. Their
characters merely serve to depict three different historical times comprehensively (the
war, the immediate post-war years and late Weimar) as experienced by the ?lost
generation?. The essence of the three novels is not the individual lives of the three
narrators, but rather the war?s continued effect on an entire generation. The extent of
this is conveyed to the full only in the third novel, Kameraden, where Lohkamp?s
application of the past tense surrounds the narrator-present with uncertainty. The novel
thereby gives no specific time-limit to the reach of the war. In addition, the time gap of
a decade between the war and Lohkamp?s narrated story furthers the impression of the
war?s long-term effect. Similarly to Birkholz, Lohkamp?s language too reveals the
strong hold the war-experience continues to exercise on him and, despite the fact that
both B?umer (immediately before his death) and Birkholz conclude their narratives
radiating will and perseverance, Lohkamp shows that the war-experience cannot be
overcome. The objectives stated in the prologue of Im Westen nichts Neues are therefore
131
not fully met until this third and final novel in Remarque?s ?trilogy?. These famous lines
express the intention to report of a generation which was ?zerst?rt?, but whereas Der
Weg zur?ck suggests that at least a few of the returning men, including Birkholz, may
find a way forward (and thus are not destroyed by the war-experience), Drei Kameraden
depicts a more pervading and permanent Zerst?rtheit. Although Lohkamp?s narrative
does not pick up directly where Birkholz?s story concludes, he nevertheless presents a
possible scenario of the surviving soldier?s life a decade after the war. If viewing the
three novels as comprising a trilogy, the title of the concluding work, Drei Kameraden,
assumes added meaning. It thus describes not only the bond between the three men in
the third novel, but in context of the proposed trilogy, also the link between the
narrators B?umer, Birkholz and Lohkamp; three soldiers, all victims of the war, and
indirectly comrades.
132
                             Notes to Der Weg zur?ck
                             and Drei Kameraden
1. Erich Maria Remarque, ?Der junge Lehrer: Plauderei eines Kriegslehrers?, in
Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten, pp. 11-15.
2. The narrator of the short story hopes that village life ? complete with a dog named
Wolf ? and working with children who are still ignorant of the reality of war will enable
him to overcome his own war experiences. Birkholz too regards his teaching post in the
country as a possible way back to ordinary life.
3. Remarque, ?Der junge Lehrer: Plauderei eines Kriegslehrers?, p. 13.
4. See, for example, Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 52;
and Murdoch, ?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg zur?ck?, pp. 19-20.
5. Hans Sochaczewer, Menschen nach dem Kriege (Vienna: Paul Zsolnay, 1929), p.
111.
6. The continued impact of the war on the returning men?s psyche is also revealed in
their reactions to their surroundings. Wagener notes, for instance, that the noise of a
tram makes Willy and Birkholz seek cover as they mistake the sound for an
approaching shell. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 41. In another
episode, Birkholz describes his sudden rush of fear when he finds himself in an exposed
position near the Pappelgraben (Der Weg, pp. 135-36).
7. In relation to the past, Birkholz says, for instance: ?Und vielleicht h?tte ich mich
doch noch im Vorgel?nde verirrt [?] wenn nicht Ludwigs Tod wie eine Rakete vor uns
aufgeschossen w?re und uns den Weg gezeigt h?tte. Wir verzweifelten, als wir sahen,
da? der Strom unsere Gemeinschaft [?] nicht [?] der Selbstsucht wegfegte [my
emphases]? (Der Weg, p. 310). The future, on the other hand, relates only to Birkholz:
?Ich will an mir arbeiten und bereit sein, ich will meine H?nde r?hren und meine
Gedanken, ich will mich nicht wichtig nehmen, sondern weitergehen, auch wenn ich
manchmal bleiben m?chte [my emphases]? (Der Weg, p. 310).
8. Ward, ?The Structure of Der Weg zur?ck?, p. 93.
9. Murdoch, ?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg zur?ck?, p. 25. See also: Ward, ?The Structure of
Der Weg zur?ck?; and Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque.
10. In Der Weg, the topic of estrangement between married couples following the
husband?s long absence during war is described in relation to both Kosole and Bethke
(Der Weg, for example, pp. 6, 51, 126). It is also an issue which Remarque brings up in
the Second World War novel Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben, p. 72; the short story
Das seltsame Schicksal des Johann Bartok; the plays Die letzte Station and Die
133
Heimkehr des Enoch J. Jones. Remarque, ?Das seltsame Schicksal des Johann Bartok?,
in Der Feind, pp. 54-61; also included in, Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten, pp. 108-14; Das
unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte, pp. 363-69. Remarque, Die letzte
Station, in Das unbekannte Werk, III: Die letzte Station, Der Letzte Akt, pp. 153-257.
The play, Die Heimkehr des Enoch J. Jones has not been published. It can be accessed
at the Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenszentrum, in Osnabr?ck. A summary of the play is
found in, Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 118-20. In this context,
see also: Murdoch, ?War, Identity, Truth and Love: Leonhard Frank?s Karl und Anna?,
Forum for Modern Language Studies, 38, 1 (2002), pp. 49-62.
11. Murdoch proposes that the details of Ludwig?s suicide could be perceived as taking
place in Birkholz?s, then, feverous mind. However, even with the recognition of this
possibility, Rahe?s suicide inevitably remains outside the span of Birkholz?s
perspective. Murdoch, ?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg zur?ck?, p. 25.
12. Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 52.
13. There are a few exceptions: The serialization incorporates a visit to Albert Tro?ke in
prison, but this event does not feature in the book. A paragraph from the episode of
Rahe?s suicide in which he expresses his despair with the authorities for their failure to
accept responsibility for the outcome of the war is likewise missing in the book. Tilman
Westphalen, ?Kameradschaft zum Tode. Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, in Der
Weg, pp. 313-34 (pp. 328-29).
14. In the version serialized in the Vossische Zeitung, the opening is not set on the
Western front. Instead, it is presented as a flashback experienced by Birkholz in his
family home. Although it must remain speculation, it is possible that Remarque
eventually switched to a chronological presentation of events, so that the novel would
be more suitable for a film project. Certainly, the sequence of the episodes of reflection
in Im Westen, were changed to a chronological order for the film production of the
book. Between the serialization of Der Weg in the Vossische Zeitung and the
publication of the work in book form, Remarque furthermore altered the conclusion.
Rather than Rahe?s suicide in the serialization, Remarque changed the ending to the less
pessimistic episode of Birkholz finally expressing hope for his personal future.
Westphalen, ?Kameradschaft zum Tode. Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 328-
29.
15. Murdoch, ?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg  zur?ck?, p. 23; also: Kathleen Devine, ?The Way
Back: Alun Lewis and Remarque?, Anglia: Zeitschrift f?r englische Philologie, 103
(1985), pp. 320-335, p. 330. The play on words in the title has relevance to different
aspects of the novel: The soldiers return physically to Germany, but psychologically too
they must attempt to find a way forward, as ? they soon realize ? there is no way back.
Rahe fails to identify such a way forward and returns to Flanders where he commits
suicide.
16. Remarque has possibly found inspiration in Sochaczewer?s novel Menschen nach
dem Kriege, which he reviewed in the Vossische Zeitung, February 1929. Remarque,
?Menschen nach dem Kriege: Hans Sochaczewers neuer Roman?, in Herbstfahrt eines
Phantasten, pp. 220-21. This novel, set in 1927, revolves around two former comrades
134
who meet almost a decade after the war. However, whereas one of them, Nock, rarely
thinks of the past, the other man, Brand, cannot come to terms with Germany?s defeat,
the perceived imposition of the Versailles Treaty and the loss of the close comradeship
of the army. Similarly to Remarque, Sochaczewer went into exile during the National
Socialist rule and, indeed, spent several months in Remarque?s Swiss residence in 1933.
Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque: Ein Chronist des 20. Jahrhunderts, p. 73.
17. Goote, Wir fahren den Tod, p. 399.
18. The concept of the v?lkische ideology is discussed in Linder, Princes of the
Trenches, chapter two, ?The Children?s Crusade?, pp. 19-44.
19. The spelling of ?Katczinky? in Kameraden differs from that of ?Katczinsky? in Im
Westen and Der Weg. However, as the name is presented by three different narrators,
spelling-variations do not necessarily exclude the possibility that Lohkamp should be
referring to the same Katczin[s]ky as B?umer and Birkholz. Lohkamp is relating his
story more than a decade after the war and his memory of the pronunciation ? not to
mention the spelling ? of his fallen comrade?s name could be failing. Lohkamp
furthermore embeds the name of Katczin[s]ky amongst other names likewise
encountered in Im Westen and partly also in Der Weg. This too suggests that it is the
same ?Katczin[s]ky? they all refer to.
20. Amongst the short stories Remarque wrote for Collier?s in 1930/31 and which are
now compiled in the publication Der Feind, one of the stories revolves around a
character named Karl Broeger. Although currently unverifiable, the anglicised spelling
of Broeger, as opposed to Br?ger, may be a product of translation from English to
German, since a German original text has, thus far, not been located. The short story,
Karl Broeger in Fleury has been published in, Der Feind, pp. 26-33; Das unbekannte
Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte, pp. 339-45; Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten, pp. 84-
90.
21. Schneider, ?Von Pat zu Drei Kameraden?, p. 69. See also: Tilman Westphalen, ?Der
Orden der Erfolglosen: Nachwort?, in Drei Kameraden, pp. 384-398 (p. 387).
22. A reason for this is offered by Jeglin and Pickerodt: ?30. Januar 1933 [lag] eine
Erstfasssung unter dem Titel Pat [vor]. Regimewechsel und Remarques Emigration sind
verantwortlich f?r den neuerlichen Umarbeitungsproze? zu Drei Kameraden?. Rainer
Jeglin and Irmgard Pickerodt, ?Weiche Kerle in harter Schale: Zu Drei Kameraden?, in
Erich Maria Remarque: Leben, Werk und weltweite Wirkung, pp. 216-234 (p. 217).
23. Schneider, ?Von Pat zu Drei Kameraden?, p. 71; Jeglin and Pickerodt, ?Weiche
Kerle in harter Schale?, p. 217; Westphalen, ?Der Orden der Erfolglosen?, p. 387.
24. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 45. Also: Taylor. Erich Maria
Remarque: A Literary and Film Biography, p. 105; and Hartung, ?Zum Wahrheitsgehalt
des Romans Im Westen nichts Neues?, p. 11. In addition: Ian Campbell, ?Remarque in
Exile: The Correspondence with Arthur Wheen (1933-36)?, Erich Maria Remarque
Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 11 (2001) pp. 87-92 (p. 89). Firda. ?Young Erich Maria Remarque:
Die Traumbude?, p. 54; Rikke Christoffersen, ?Three Comrades ? One Perspective:
135
Contextualizing Remarque?s Drei Kameraden with the two early War Novels?, Erich
Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 15 (2005), pp. 36-62.  
25. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 52.
26. Schneider, ?Von Pat zu Drei Kameraden?, pp. 67-68 (p. 76).
27. Unlike Drei Kameraden, the early manuscript, Pat, picks up shortly after the
conclusion of Der Weg zur?ck, spring of 1920: ?Von meinem Sommer will ich
erz?hlen,- von meinem Sommer 1920?. Quoted in: Schneider, ?Von Pat zu Drei
Kameraden?, p. 69. For clarification regarding the time of the conclusion of Der Weg
zur?ck, see Murdoch, ?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg zur?ck?, pp. 20-21.
28. Ward, ?The Structure of Der Weg zur?ck?, p. 93.
29. Haim Gordon, Heroism and Friendship in the Novels of Erich Maria Remarque
(New York etc.: Peter Lang, 2003), p. 72.
30. In Der Weg zur?ck, Tro?ke experiences a similar emptiness in his life. Barker and
Last explain: ?Much as he cherishes his companionship with Birkholz and his other
friends, Trosske wants someone more, someone who really belongs to him and who will
love him; and above all he wants children, who will have experienced nothing of the
war?. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 77. Birkholz too registers a pureness ?
a lack of contamination by war ? in his young pupils. It is, of course, this innocence,
that Tro?ke hopes to somewhat re-experience through fatherhood.
31. Murdoch, ?Vorw?rts auf dem Weg zur?ck?; Murdoch, ?Narrative Strategies in
Remarque?s ?Im Westen nichts Neues??.
32. Ernst Glaeser, Frieden (Berlin: Gustav Kiepenheuer, 1930), p. 168.
33. ?Alles war zusammengebrochen, verf?lscht und vergessen. Und wer nicht vergessen
konnte, dem blieben nur die Ohnmacht, die Verzweiflung, die Gleichg?ltigkeit und der
Schnaps? (Kameraden, p. 49).
34. ?Wir sind verbrannt von Tatsachen, wir kennen Unterschiede wie H?ndler und
Notwendigkeiten wie Schl?chter. Wir sind nicht mehr unbek?mmert ? wir sind
f?rchterlich gleichg?ltig? (Im Westen, p. 89).
35. The term ?author-time? has been defined by Boa and Reid as: ?the ?time? or rather
space the author devotes to each part of the narrative-time [the time covered in the
events narrated]?. Boa and Reid, Critical Strategies: German Fiction in the Twentieth
Century, p. 14.
36. Heinrich B?ll, ?Gesch?ft ist Gesch?ft?, in Wanderer, kommst du nach Spa . . . :
Erz?hlungen ([1967] Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1980), pp. 133-34.
37. A similar crossing of the spheres of life and death is depicted in the famous
cemetery scene in Im Westen nichts Neues, where B?umer, unknowingly, seeks cover
136
under a corpse. Likewise, in Der Weg zur?ck, both Rahe?s suicide and Birkholz?s break-
down are preceded by visions of the dead.
38. In this context, the term ?Narrator-present? refers to the time at which Lohkamp (as
narrator) delivers his story. ?Narrated present?, on the contrary, signifies the time about
which he narrates; the time which the characters in the story would have experienced as
their present (in this case, the gradual progression of the year between March 1928 and
March 1929).
39. Even before actually seeing Pat, Lohkamp?s register reflects death in relation to her
character: ?Aber bevor er den Mund auftun konnte, ?ffnete sich pl?tzlich, wie durch
eine Geisterhand, die zweite T?r des Buick ? [?] dann stieg ein M?dchen aus und
schritt langsam auf uns zu [my emphasis]? (Kameraden, p. 14). Later, Pat?s voice is
likewise described as ?geisterhaft? (Kameraden, p. 27), and when Lohkamp waits for
Pat in a confectionary, but does not notice her arrival until she stands next to the table,
he asks: ?Wo sind Sie denn nur so geisterhaft hergekommen? [my emphasis]?
(Kameraden, p. 33). In the episode set at the cemetery, Pat is again described with the
adjective ?geisterhaft? (Kameraden, p. 103).
40. Antkowiak. Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 69. Antkowiak?s
accusation seems unfounded. When Lohkamp has a verbal duel with a stranger in the
street, the expressions voiced are foolish, but not coarse: ?[t]r?umerische K?nguruh?,
?dekadenten Plattfu??, ?arbeitslosen Leichenw?scher? and similar phrases are exchanged
(Kameraden, p. 39). However, analogously to B?umer, Lohkamp only alludes to, but
never voices directly, profanities which may be perceived as offensive: ?Line schob den
[Kinder-] Wagen. Der Schmied machte dar?ber solche Witze, da? ich vorzog, mit
Patrice Hollmann ein St?ck zur?ckzubleiben? (Kameraden, p. 73); ??Jetzt wird es Zeit
aufzubrechen?, sagte ich zu Pat. ?Das Lied da kenne ich. Es hat mehrere Strophen, die
sich m?chtig steigern. Fort von hier!?? (Kameraden, p. 105).
41. Wagener erroneously claims that Birkholz, similarly to Willy, ?now looks forward
to returning to his village as an instructor to teach his students about, as his friend Willy
puts it, ?real love of one?s homeland?. He has overcome the dark shadows of his past
and has found a new task in his life, limited as it may be?. Wagener, Understanding
Erich Maria Remarque, p. 44. There is, however, no indication that Birkholz intends to
resume a teaching career. The plans for the future which Wagener describes are those of
Willy only.
42. Jeglin and Pickerodt, ?Weiche Kerle in harter Schale?.
43. The setting of a hospital for depicting suffering and victimization is used in many of
Remarque?s other novels. In Arc de Triomphe, for instance, Remarque utilizes his
protagonist, Ravic?s, profession as a surgeon to offer social criticism.
44. Gordon thus rightly claims that Remarque?s ?heroic? characters are generally ?not
great generals or political figures. They are not successful capitalist entrepreneurs or
famous artists. They are what is usually termed simple people?. Gordon, Heroism and
Friendship in the Novels of Erich Maria Remarque, p. 6.
137
45. Booth defines an ?unreliable narrator? as a narrator who does not speak or act ?in
accordance with [?] the implied author?s norms?. Booth offers an example in which the
?narrator claims to be naturally wicked while the author silently praises his virtues
behind his back?. In a slightly modified form, this example could apply to Robert and
his supposed erroneous perception of his own personality. Booth, The Rhetoric of
Fiction, pp. 158-59.
46. Gordon, Heroism and Friendship in the Novels of Erich Maria Remarque, p. 22.
47. Gordon, Heroism and Friendship in the Novels of Erich Maria Remarque, p. 23.
48. The term ?abreisen? is likewise used in Remarque?s novel Der Himmel kennt keine
G?nstlinge in which another of Remarque?s female characters has terminal tuberculosis.
49. Boa and Reid, Critical Strategies: German Fiction in the Twentieth Century, p. 26.
50. Antkowiak has criticized Ilja Fradkin for his identification of the perpetrators as
Nazis: ?[?] wobei allerdings unerfindlich bleibt, woher Fradkin wei?, da? es sich um
einen faschistischen M?rder handelt; aus dem Text ist es jedenfalls nicht ersichtlich?.
Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 63. However, although
the killers are not explicitly identified as Nazis, their political identity is implied, partly
in the description of them as ?vier junge Burschen. Einer trug hellgelbe, neue
Ledergamaschen, die andern eine Art von Milit?rstiefeln? (Kameraden, p. 321). Their
young age is not irrelevant. In Weimar Culture, Peter Gay explains the particular
attraction the Nazi Party exercised on the younger section of the population. Peter Gay,
Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider ([1969] Great Britain: Penguin, 1974), pp.
146-51. See also: John Fotheringham, ?Looking Back at the Revolution: Toller?s Eine
Jugend in Deutschland and Remarque?s Der Weg zur?ck?, in Remarque against War,
pp. 98-118 (p. 115). It is, however, particularly K?ster?s reason for wishing to take
personal revenge rather than leaving the matter to the police that conveys the political
conviction of the killers: ?Diese Burschen wissen, da? sie milde Richter finden!
(Kameraden, p. 327). With reference to young, right-wing militants, Peter Gay points
out that regards prison sentences, ?the Republic was always generous with its enemies?.
Gay, Weimar Culture, p. 161. Contemplating also the time of origin of Drei
Kameraden, such a statement unambiguously points to the four men being supporters of
the National Socialist Party.
51. Quoted in Schneider, ?Von Pat zu Drei Kameraden?, p. 71. The article includes the
full synopsis.
52. Hartung suggests the identity of the third-person narrator as being possibly that of
Ernst Birkholz, a theory which supports the idea that at least Birkholz, but perhaps also
Lohkamp, are present in the background of B?umer?s narrative. Hartung, ?Zum
Wahrheitsgehalt des Romans Im Westen nichts Neues?, p. 16.
138
                                                          Chapter 3
                  Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe
  Following Kameraden, Remarque shelved the theme of the First World War and its
effects. Instead, he turned his attention to the European exile problem which had been
instigated by Hindenburg?s appointment of Hitler as Chancellor and the rise of the latter
to power in January 1933. With this, Germany had entered a new historical phase. Many
of those who subsequently came to suffer racial or political prejudice fled, initially, to
neighbouring countries and later, if possible, to extra-European destinations. Amongst
them was a considerable proportion of German writers. With the Nazis? introduction of
regulations affecting all spheres of cultural life, many authors were unable to continue
their literary activities in Germany. These regulations aimed to cleanse Germany of, for
instance, books and authors who countered the nationalistic foundation of Hitler?s
regime. Writers who had expressed undesirable views in previous works, and those who
refused to become members of the Reichsschrifttumskammer were therefore, in addition
to non-Aryan and Communist writers, banned from publishing in Germany.
1
 Remarque
was one of these authors. Im Westen and Der Weg were both rejected for their supposed
?literarischen Verrat am Soldaten des Weltkrieges?.
2
 However, when this was
proclaimed at the book-burning in May 1933, Remarque had already left Germany.
Although Remarque did not experience the material deprivation with which many of his
fellow nationals in exile were faced, including a majority of writers in emigration, he
shared with them the same loss of national identity and feeling of uncertainty for the
139
future.
3
 It is therefore not surprising that Remarque, like many of his fellow writers in
exile, should take up the themes of expatriation and disenfranchisement in his next two
novels, Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe.
4
  Liebe Deinen N?chsten precedes Arc de Triomphe in terms of both time of origin and
time of plot. Their analysis in this study shall follow this sequence too. In these two
works, Remarque not only turns to a new theme; he embarks upon this challenge by
also applying other narrative strategies. Hence, whereas the preceding three works are
all related in the first person, Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe both employ
third- person narrators. This necessarily affects all other aspects of the novel. In the
introductory chapter of this thesis, the various elements which, in unison, constitute
form were shown to be interdependent, and the borders between them to often be
indistinct. When assuming a different narrative stance, it is therefore to be expected that
also other formal aspects of the work will be affected. In consistent first-person
narratives, such as Im Westen, the formal elements all relate back to the Ich-Erz?hler.
This restriction, however, does not govern third-person narratives as, for instance, Liebe
Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe. Instead, the author faces an array of
perspectival possibilities during the process of writing, which naturally enables a more
complex use also of the other formal elements. The register, tone and use of imagery,
for example, can all vary considerably depending on whose perspective is being
presented at any given moment in the novel. The examination of the perspective in
Remarque?s third-person novels will therefore necessarily also consider how other
formal elements are used in conjunction with the perspective, and which effects are
achieved as a result.
Set in the year 1936/37, Liebe Deinen N?chsten commences, geographically, in
Vienna, but regular deportations and the changing political climate in Europe take the
140
refugee-characters to Czechoslovakia and Switzerland, as well as to France. The focus
is predominantly on two German refugees, Kern and Steiner, who become acquainted at
the opening of the novel when they are arrested at the same boarding-house in Vienna.
As with Im Westen and Der Weg, this novel also opens, seemingly, in the midst of
events: ?Kern fuhr mit einem Ruck aus schwarzem, brodelndem Schlaf empor und
lauschte? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 7). However, although it appears that the reader
comes to observe Kern?s and Steiner?s lives from a coincidental moment in time, the
opening of the novel has been planned carefully and serves a number of purposes: First
of all, the police-raid introduces immediate drama to the work, but with Kern and
Steiner being brought to the police station for questioning, it also creates a situation in
which these two characters must identify themselves in some detail to the police. The
reader thereby acquires basic information about the two main characters. Secondly, the
arrest necessitates an acquaintance between Kern and Steiner as they come to share a
cell for a fortnight along with other detained refugees. Finally, whilst under arrest, the
physical confinement of the characters automatically restricts the novel?s plot
temporarily. Consequently, conversation flourishes amongst them. This offers the
reader insight into the general plight of the refugee-existence and the conditions with
which the dispossessed were faced in late 1930?s Europe. The individual stories reflect
the indifference and hostility with which the emigrants have been met in the host-
countries, and the title Liebe Deinen N?chsten can therefore, as Taylor has pointed out,
be perceived as a statement of irony.
5
 Although Sternburg opposes to this reading, both
critics highlight the same fundamental point: that the work is a genuine entreaty for
N?chstenliebe.
6
 The same biblical imperative is, in fact, used by Gottfried Nickl in his
Gegenschrift, Im Westen nichts Neues und sein wahrer Sinn from 1930. Nickl, however,
applies a rigid interpretation of the words to support his nationalistic views:
141
Christus, den wohl auch du als Vertreter edelster
Menschenliebe annerkennen wirst, predigte: ?Liebe
deinen N?chsten wie dich selbst!? Er sagte nicht: ?alle
Menschen?, sondern ?deinen N?chsten?. Wer ist wohl
eher unser N?chster: Sippe, Stamm und Volk oder die
dieses Volk bedrohende feindliche Welt? Christus lehrte
auch: ?Liebet eure Feinde!? Aber er f?gte diesmal nicht
hinzu: ?wie euch selbst?!
7
  It must remain speculation whether Remarque ever read Nickl?s reply to Im Westen,
but his exile novel, Liebe Deine N?chsten, certainly challenges Nickl?s reading of the
biblical phrase. It shows that national identity is irrelevant to the concept of friend and
enemy, and to true N?chstenliebe.
  Kern and Steiner have been forced into exile for different reasons. Kern who is twenty-
two and a former medical student fled because of his partly Jewish ancestry. Steiner, on
the other hand, is in his forties and a political refugee. The age gap between them but
also the mentorial role which the latter quickly assumes bring to mind the relationships
of B?umer and Kat in Im Westen, Birkholz and Bethke in Der Weg, but also Graeber
and Pohlmann in the later work, Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu Sterben.
8
 Despite being
characterized by mutual respect, all of these relationships are governed by an inequality
which originates in the younger men?s lesser degree of life experience and their
subsequent vulnerability. In Im Westen, Kat?s ?riesiger, gebeugter Gestalt? and his ?gute
Stimme? evoked in B?umer a sense of serenity and safety (Im Westen, pp. 72-73).
Comparable descriptions of Steiner and the comfort his presence offers Kern are found
in Liebe Deinen N?chsten. As the two of them part after their release from the arrest, for
example, they shake hands: ?[Steiner] gab Kern die Hand. Sie war gro? und trocken und
warm? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 32). Although narrated in the third-person, this
subjective description reflects Kern?s perception of the handshake. Although the
142
handshake is, in itself, insignificant to the plot, the adjectives ?gro??; ?trocken? and
?warm? communicate the feeling of safety which Kern experiences from being around
Steiner.
  As a means of depicting Kern?s inferior position in his friendship to the older
emigrant, Remarque uses a technique which he applied already in Kameraden. As
discussed in the previous chapter, Lohkamp?s rank within his circle of friends is
communicated by their reference to him as ?Knabe?, ?Kindchen?, ?Baby? or ?der Junge?
(Kameraden, e.g. pp. 156, 46-47). This manner of address is echoed in Liebe Deinen
N?chsten, where Steiner rarely makes use of Kern?s name. Instead he asserts his
position as Kern?s senior, but also implies a certain affection and wish to protect the
younger man, when calling him ?Kleiner?, ?Baby? or ?Knabe? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten,
e.g. pp. 114, 116, 118, 123, 266). Kern?s young age is conveyed also in the motherly
comment from the landlady of the boarding-house: ?Gott ja, er w?chst wohl noch?
(Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 26). In Prague, Kern falls in love with another young
emigrant, Ruth Holland, and Steiner?s quasi-paternal affection is extended to include
also her. She is subsequently referred to as ?kleine Ruth? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, pp.
127, 274, 269). Steiner?s view of the young couple as children relates as much to their
lack of experience in exile life, as it refers to their actual younger age. A similar attitude
was discussed in the analysis of the First World War novels. In Im Westen, for instance,
B?umer speaks of ?steinaltes Milit?r?, ?altes Frontschwein? and ?mich alten Soldaten
[my emphases]? (Im Westen, pp. 33, 36, 124). These statements are likewise unrelated
to the age of the soldiers, but rather signify battle experience.
  In the course of the novel, Steiner and Kern do not travel together. Their paths do,
however, cross on three occasions. These three encounters are placed at the beginning
and at the end of each of the novel?s two clearly designated parts; the Erster and
143
Zweiter Teil. This relationship between plot and overall structure can be illustrated as
taking the form of the figure ?8?: The upper circle of the ?8? represents the erster Teil;
the bottom circle corresponds to the zweiter Teil. Kern and Steiner set out from the
same point ? from the very top of the ?8? ? but go in different directions. Halfway
through the novel, at the end of part one ? and halfway down the ?8? ? their paths
intersect. At the end of the novel, the two men meet once more ? the bottom point of the
?8?. As Kern and Steiner are at different geographical locations throughout most of the
novel, the focus switches intermittently between them; depicting their individual
experiences in short, predominantly self-contained episodes.
  Kern and Steiner have roughly been allocated the same proportion of space in the
book. However, due, largely, to Remarque?s utilization of narrative perspective, Kern
figures as the actual protagonist. From the outset, the two characters are depicted with
dissimilar perspectival distance. On the opening page, Kern is not only employed as
focalizer, he is also the only character who is named. The other two men present are
referred to only in the indistinct terms of ?der Pole? and ?der Mann? (Liebe Deinen
N?chsten, pp. 7-9).  Since the narrator?s perspective is initially limited to that of Kern,
the impersonal reference to the two other men indicates that they are relative strangers
to Kern. It is thus only when Kern overhears Steiner?s name at the police station that the
narrator begins to refer to this older emigrant by name also. Kern?s character is thus
clearly granted precedence from the outset.
  The character, Kern, was modelled on an emigrant with whom Remarque became
acquainted whilst residing in Switzerland.
9
 The author regularly found inspiration for
his characters in the people he encountered in real life, although he generally altered the
names slightly as part of the fictionalization process.
10
 Remarque?s diaries testify that a
name-modification occurred also in the creation of the character Kern. The real
144
emigrant?s name was, in fact, Korn; a name which Remarque used also for his character
during the embryonic stages of writing Liebe Deinen N?chsten.
11
 However, Remarque
eventually changed it to Kern and thereby detached this character somewhat from its
source of inspiration, the non-fictitious emigrant. More importantly however, the name
modification simultaneously came to suggest this character?s role as the actual
protagonist and Kernpunkt of the novel.
Although Kern constitutes the focal point in Liebe Deinen N?chsten, the central voice
is that of the third-person narrator. In order to examine this perspectival element of the
novel, it is necessary to consider the relationship between author and narrator, and
which of the two is really telling the story. This problem was highlighted already in
relation to first-person narratives, but the dilemma recurs, possibly to an even greater
extent, when attempting to analyse a third-person narrative. A third-person narrator is
often anonymous and it can therefore be problematic trying to distinguish the narrative
voice from that of the author. The first-person narrators, B?umer, Birkholz and Robert
Lohkamp, all had definite and consistent identities which clearly distinguished them
from the author. The third-person narrator in Liebe Deinen N?chsten, on the other hand,
remains indistinct, not least because (s)he does not participate in the events unfolding.
The narrative voice could therefore be interpreted as being identical with that of
Remarque. According to G?rard Genette, however, any narrator of fiction should be
differentiated from the author.
12
 Genette further proposed that the narrator should be
perceived as a medium through which the author directs his or her story. In an analytical
situation, the narrator therefore takes the form of an additional character. An
examination of the narrative strategies in a third-person narrative must therefore
necessarily consider the views, not only of the characters in the plot, but also those
expressed, directly or indirectly, by the narrator.
145
Despite using what Boa and Reid term a subjective medium,
13
 in an interview from the
late 1930s, Remarque reveals his awareness of the impact perspective can have on the
perceived objectivity of a work:
[D]er Autor eines Buches in der Dritten Person kann
sagen ?diese oder jene Figur hat diesen oder jenen
Charakter?, weil er selbst die Figuren erfunden hat,
w?hrend der Erz?hler in der Ersten Person nur schreiben
kann ?diese oder jene Person hat jenes getan, deshalb
glaube ich, da? er diesen oder jenen Charakter hat?. Aus
all diesen Gr?nden heraus wird ein in der Ersten Person
geschriebenes Buch, das dennoch objektiv sein soll,
schwerer gelingen als ein Buch in der Dritten Person.
14
  Remarque?s assumption of a third-person narrator in Liebe Deinen N?chsten might
therefore not have been solely the wish for an authorial challenge.
15
 His decision could
equally reflect that he wanted to depict the exile experience as objectively as possible. A
diary entry by Remarque from 1941 indeed implies this:
Kritik New-Yorker. Schlecht. Vermi?t die Handlung u.
die interessanten Leute. Findet die Minor-Charaktere viel
interessanter als die Hauptch. Stimmt. Ich wollte das auch.
Wollte Kern u. Ruth als Dutzendmenschen durchgehen
lassen.
16
Rather than offering the perspective of only one individual who then comes to represent
a wider picture of suffering and victimization (as was the paradigm applied in both Im
Westen and Der Weg), Remarque uses the third-person perspective to show the
emigrant-existence in a relatively objective light.
17
 The actual plot of the novel does, of
course, also influence the author?s choice of narrative point-of-view. Hence, when
Remarque in Liebe Deinen N?chsten depicts two refugees, who through most of the
novel are at different geographical locations, a third-person narrative approach seems
almost inevitable. It would have been near impossible to achieve an equally coherent
146
presentation of this plot through an Ich-Erz?hler. Remarque could, of course, have
applied a framework-structure to the novel and thereby maintained the first-person
perspective; He indeed opted for this solution in the later exile novel, Die Nacht von
Lissabon. Under such a scenario, however, the perspective would essentially come to
resemble that of a first-person narrative and thus be entirely subjective.
  Boa and Reid claim that drama, as a medium, is more objective than the novel: ?[In
drama,] objects ? characters, location, events ? speak for themselves and are physically
present before the audience?. The novel, on the other hand, is always narrated ?through
the medium of someone else?s mind, from a particular and subjective point of view?.
18
In Liebe Deinen N?chsten, Remarque borrows certain traits from the drama-form and
thereby seeks to evade the inevitable subjectivity of his chosen medium. A considerable
part of Liebe Deinen N?chsten is, for instance, related through dialogue. Although the
direct speech is interspersed with clarifying comments by the third-person narrator,
these statements mostly depict characters or events from an external perspective only.
Embedded in passages of dialogue, the narrator?s remarks subsequently come to
resemble stage directions. In line with Boa and Reid?s claim above, this gives the
impression that Liebe Deinen N?chsten unfolds objectively in front of the reading
audience. The following quotation exemplifies this perspectival strategy which
characterizes much of Liebe Deinen N?chsten. In the excerpt, Kern is in the Prater
fairground, where he is practising to become Steiner?s assistant in the performance as
?Alvaro, das Wunder der Telepathie?. The objective comments by the narrator are
highlighted, below. The connection to the drama form is obvious:
Direktor Potzloch erschien mit Get?se im Eingang. ?Lernt
er?s??
147
?Wir wollen gerade probieren?, erwiderte Steiner. ?Setzen
Sie sich mal hin, Direktor, und verstecken Sie was an sich.
Haben Sie eine Stecknadel bei sich??
?Nat?rlich!? Potzloch griff nach seinem Rockaufschlag.
?Nat?rlich hat er eine Stecknadel!? Steiner drehte sich
um. ?Verstecken Sie sie. Und dann komm, Kern, und
f?hre mich.?
Leopold Potzloch nahm die Nadel mit einem listigen Blick
und klemmte sie zwischen seine Schuhsohle. ?Los, Kern!?
sagte er dann. Kern ging zur B?hne und nahm Steiners
Hand. Er f?hrte ihn zur Potzloch, und Steiner begann zu
suchen.
?Ich bin kitzlig, Steiner?, prustete Potzloch und kreischte
auf. Nach einigen Minuten fand Steiner die Nadel [My
emphases] (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 120).
  The reader observes events from a purely external perspective. There is no direct
information or insight into the thoughts of the characters. This objective tone of the
narrator is achieved, for instance, through the striking lack of adjectives. Although large
parts of Liebe Deinen N?chsten employ this kind of limited view, the novel is not
narrated entirely from an external perspective. At the opening of the work, for example,
the narrative is confined to reflect the perspective of Kern. The reader is thus given
information only within the scope of Kern?s physical and mental realm:
Kern sah auf das Leuchtzifferblatt seiner Uhr. Es war kurz
nach f?nf. Das Zimmer war noch fast finster. Grau und
undeutlich schimmerten die Laken der beiden anderen
Betten durch die Dunkelheit. Der Pole, der an der Wand
schlief, schnarchte. Im selben Augenblick r?hrte sich der
Mann, der im mittleren Bette lag. ?Ist was los?? fl?sterte
er (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 7).
  Although narrated in the third person, the narrator fades into the background; leaving
the reader only with what appears to be Kern?s perspective. There is no standard term
for this narrative approach, but Jonathan Culler?s suggestion of ?third-person limited
148
point-of-view? seems fitting.
19
 This kind of limited stance enables Remarque to preserve
some of the closeness between reader and character which is otherwise only
characteristic of first-person narratives. However, in Liebe Deinen N?chsten, the
viewpoint alters already on the novel?s second page: ?Sie liefen so leise, da? sie den
schlecht zugedrehten Wasserhahn ?ber dem Ausgu? tr?pfeln h?rten? [my emphases]
(Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 8). The narrator is no longer restricted to the third-person
limited stance of Kern, but is able to access the minds also of other characters.
  Whereas the narrative perspective in the three First World War novels is relatively
consistent or ? as in the case of Der Weg ? fluctuates with intermittence and seemingly
logically, it does not appear to follow any patterns in Liebe Deinen N?chsten. At times
the narrator offers a purely external view of events; at other times, (s)he assumes
Culler?s third-person limited perspective. Although these two narrative stances
dominate the work, there are also examples of narrative omniscience.
Depending on which of these three stances the narrator applies, the distance between
reader and character varies. This is demonstrated particularly well in relation to the
characters of Kern and Steiner. As has been established, the two of them occupy more
or less equal space in the novel. However, the perspective from which they are depicted
differs. Steiner is almost exclusively depicted from an external point-of-view through
either his actions or through dialogue. His thoughts and true nature must therefore
remain largely conjecture, and the subsequent dependency on interpretation creates a
certain distance between the reader and this character. On few occasions the narrator
does assume the third-person limited perspective of Steiner, but these incidents are too
few and too brief to exercise any significant impact on the reader/ character
relationship. In comparison, Kern is presented from varying degrees of distance: As
with Steiner, he is sometimes viewed only from the outside, but the narrator also
149
regularly adopts his restricted perspective. Although the insights into Kern?s thoughts
rarely constitute more than a glimpse, these occurrences offer the reader the opportunity
to witness directly at least some aspects of Kern?s nature. The dissimilar stances from
which Kern and Steiner are depicted show that the application of a particular narrative
perspective and its level of omniscience invariably influence the sense of distance which
the reader experience to a character.
In Liebe Deinen N?chsten Remarque utilizes both content and form to present an
unbiased picture of the exile-experience. There is nevertheless some truth in the claim
that the individual character is ?wholly good or wholly bad, in true fairytale tradition?.
20
However, none of the actual groups featured in the work, whether refugees, legal
nationals or representatives of the law-enforcement, are depicted one-sidedly. Rather,
each group proves to consist of a variety of individuals and this makes the narrator
appear to be relatively unbiased.
21
 The impartiality is nevertheless deceptive, but due to
the novel?s extensive use of dialogue and focalization, the narrator?s standpoint is well-
disguised. When examining whether there is an underlying subjectivity in the narrative
voice, the narrative must therefore be considered in its entirety. The narrator?s use
almost exclusively of emigrants as focalizers,
22
 for example, suggests a keenness to
portray the points-of-view of especially this group of individuals. The recurrent ship-
related imagery also conveys the narrator?s sympathy with the emigrants. The figurative
description of the small party of refugees who are gathered in a hotel room on New
Year?s Eve, 1936, hence serves as an omen for the future that awaits them as a group:
Auf einem Balkon des Hauses gegen?ber brannte ein
kleiner Mann in Weste und Hemds?rmeln eine Schale mit
Gr?nfeierpulver ab. Die ganze Front leuchtete auf. Das
gr?ne Licht blendete in das Zimmer Edith Rosenfelds
hinein und machte es unwirklich ? als w?re es nicht mehr
ein Raum in einem Hotel in Paris, sondern eine Kabine in
150
einem versunkenen Schiff, tief unter Wasser? (Liebe
Deinen N?chsten, p. 279).
Set in the years 1936-37, Paris is still relatively safe for the emigrants. Europe would,
however, become increasingly dangerous to refugees of the National Socialist Regime,
and many of them would perish. The gloomy imagery of the exerpt, above, forebodes
this. A trope with a similar maritime resonance is used when an elderly, Jewish refugee,
known as Vater Moritz is dying. On his deathbed he has a vision of travelling to an
afterlife by boat. The section commences:
Moritz Rosenthal beobachtete, ohne den Kopf zu
bewegen, wie die Fenster des gegen?berliegenden Hauses
hell wurden; es schwamm wie ein Riesenschiff in der
D?mmerung, wie ein Ozeandampfer kurz vor der
Abfahrt.[?] [E]r sah, wie pl?tzlich die Fenster sich weit
?ffneten und wie jemand, der ihm glich, aufstand und
hinausschritt. ?ber den Schatten hinweg, hin?ber zu dem
Schiff, das in der langen D?mmerung des Lebens sacht
schwankte und nun die Anker lichtete und langsam
davonglitt? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 311).
  Whereas Vater Moritz?s escape is illusory, the ship-imagery transforms and becomes
an actuality at the conclusion of the novel. Many emigrants must remain in Europe and
face extinction by the ever rising tide of National Socialism, but Ruth and Kern, are
amongst the few who are able to leave for America on a real ship. A similar use of the
ship-imagery recurs in Remarque?s later exile novel, Die Nacht von Lissabon, also.
23
  In Liebe Deinen N?chsten, the ship-imageries hint at the impending collapse of
Europe. The seemingly neutral stance of the narrator is deceptive, as the expansion of
Hitler?s Germany is unambiguously depicted as a negative development. The tone
might be objective locally in the text, but the focus of the overall narrative reveals a
clear subjective stance.
151
  On three occasions, focalization is used to convey sympathy for the emigrant. In these
episodes the focus is diverted away from the main story revolving around Kern and
Steiner. Instead, the reader is invited to identify with three different refugees: Barbara
Klein; Vater Moritz and Goldbach. These characters are essentially without significance
to the general plot. Over a few pages, however, the narrative becomes confined to their
individual experiences; depicted mainly through use of a third-person limited
perspective. By having access to the minds of these characters, the reader witnesses,
close up, the quiet sufferings particularly of Dr. Goldbach and Barbara Klein. No
equivalent close-ups are offered of any of the legal nationals in Liebe Deinen N?chsten.
In allowing the refugees? circumstances and views to take precedence, the narrator
expresses sympathy with the victims, and the reader is encouraged strongly ? although
indirectly ? to take a similar stand.
24
In addition to these three minor characters, Liebe Deinen N?chsten contains an
extensive list of other peripheral characters. This is not surprising since the novel
revolves around the experiences of Kern and Steiner. As exiles, they have no permanent
base, but are forced to move on regularly. They subsequently encounter numerous
fellow ?migr?s but also legal nationals and representatives of law and order, and this
naturally has an expanding effect on the character list. Firda is right in claiming that
Liebe Deinen N?chsten ?sacrifices depth of characterization for the ?fate? of individual
exiles linked to the course of social and historical change?.
25
 The many minor characters
nevertheless serve two specific, contrary and yet complementary purposes in Liebe
Deinen N?chsten: In view of the novel as a whole, they help convey a general picture of
the exile existence, but because of the nuances in their suffering and problems, each
encounter with a new character also aims to distinguish the refugees and show them as
individuals rather than as a homogenous and faceless group of victims.
152
 The prevalence of emigrant characters in Liebe Deinen N?chsten is, of course, related
to the fact that the main plot revolves around the experiences of Kern and Steiner. As
exiles, they constantly fear exposure, and they therefore limit their dealings with the
legal citizens of the host countries. Any interaction with strangers is done with caution
and there is a pronounced hesitancy about revealing any personal details. Remarque
illustrates this through Steiner?s response, when approached by a man unknown to him:
??Sind Sie Steiner?? fragte [der Unbekannte]. ?Nein?, sagte Steiner. ?Warum??? (Liebe
Deinen N?chsten, p. 284). In order to convey the larger scale of the emigrants?
watchfulness, many of the characters remain unnamed. Instead they are identified by
pseudonyms based on particular characteristics in their appearance or behaviour. At
times the narrative perspective indeed demands anonymity. An episode set in the
Bureau for Emigrant Aid, for example, is focalized through Kern. He observes the other
refugees present and as they are strangers to him, the narrator (who is restricted by the
scope of Kern?s perspective) must refer to them without use of names: ?Neben Kern sa?
ein bleicher Mensch mit einem Birnensch?del, der einen Geigenkasten auf den Knien
hielt. Auf der anderen Seite hockte ein alter Mann, ?ber dessen gebuckelte Stirn eine
Narbe lief? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 36). The two men are thereafter distinguished
simply as: ?der Geiger? and ?der alte Mann mit der Narbe auf der Stirn?. Even amongst
acquainted refugees, the use of pseudonyms is not uncommon. Whilst working on a
fairground, for example, Kern is known to his colleagues under a number of names:
?George?, ?Charlie?, ?Alfons?, ?Peperl? and ?Schani? respectively (Liebe Deinen
N?chsten, pp. 124-26).
26
 The emigrants? loss of personal identity recurs as a theme in
both Remarque?s next novel, Arc de Triomphe, and the later book, Die Nacht von
Lissabon. In the former, the protagonist explains: ?Ravic ist bereits mein dritter Name.
Ich habe ihn seit fast zwei Jahren. Nichts passiert seitdem. Scheint mir Gl?ck zu
153
bringen. Gewinne ihn t?glich lieber. Meinen wirklichen habe ich schon fast vergessen?
(Arc de Triomphe, p. 53).
As shown in relation to Im Westen, many First World War novels likewise raise the
topic of loss of individuality. However, the emigrants? problem in relation to personal
identity differs from that of the front soldiers?. In Schauwecker?s and Wiechert?s First
World War novels, for example, the war participants are said to have been consciously
moulded into a uniform whole.
27
 This is intended to create unity amongst the men, and
nurture their sense of national identity. The refugees are faced with the opposite
scenario. Many of them have been disenfranchised and although they are able to
preserve their individualism, they have to erase their authentic identities, in order to
avoid deportation or even imprisonment if discovered to be a previous offender. Stefan
Zweig notes in Die Welt von Gestern:
Und ich z?gere nicht zu bekennen, da? seit dem Tage, da
ich mit eigentlich fremden Papieren oder P?ssen leben
mu?te, ich mich nie mehr ganz als mit mir
zusammengeh?rig empfand. Etwas von der nat?rlichen
Identit?t mit meinem urspr?nglichen und eigentlichen Ich
blieb f?r immer zerst?rt.
28
  Similar words are voiced by D?blin: ?Ich erinnere mich nicht, je zu irgendeiner Zeit
meines Lebens so wenig ,ich? gewesen zu sein!?.
29
Despite the fact that the German First World War soldiers found themselves far from
home and mostly living in peril, the army seeked to preserve a spiritual bond between
these men and their country. The European exiles of the 1930s, as depicted by
Remarque, were isolated both physically and emotionally from their homeland and from
their previous way of life. Remarque refers to this as living ?ohne Wurzel?,
30
 and for the
characters of his novels this essentially means that their lives disintegrate as they find
154
themselves excluded from a traditional way of life. In Liebe Deinen N?chsten, Ruth?s
and Kern?s experience of their exclusion is communicated through their unsuccessful
attempts to participate in everyday activities. Visiting a dance hall, for example, Ruth,
Kern and a third emigrant, Binder, struggle to assume the carefree mood of the other
people present:
Es war eine Menge junger Leute da, die auch nicht ?lter
waren als sie . . . aber trotzdem wirkten sie auf eine
sonderbare Art wie drei verirrte Kinder, die mit gro?en
Augen dasa?en und nicht dazugeh?rten. Es war nicht ihre
Heimatlosigkeit allein, die wie ein grauer Ring um sie lag
? es war auch die Freudlosigkeit einer Jugend, die ohne
viel Hoffnung und Zukunft war [my emphasis] (Liebe
Deinen N?chsten, pp. 177-78).
31
  Their comparison to children is, in this case, not only intended to stir the reader?s
sympathy for the young refugees, but it also conveys Ruth and Kern?s feeling of
inadequacy by the situation.
Their experience of exclusion is again depicted when Kern and Ruth take a ride in the
Ferris Wheel in the Prater fairground high above the ground. A sudden panoramic
perspective unfolds before the two young emigrants.
[U]nd es schien ihnen pl?tzlich [?] als s??en sie in einem
lautlosen Aeroplan und unter ihnen drehte sich langsam
die Erde fort ? als geh?rten sie gar nicht mehr zu ihr, als
w?ren sie in einem Geisterflugzeug, das nirgendwo mehr
einen Landeplatz hatte und unter dem tausend Heimaten
vor?berzogen, tausend erleuchtete H?user und Stuben,
abendliches Heimkehrlicht bis zu den Horizonten,
Lampen und Wohnungen und schirmende D?cher dar?ber,
die riefen und lockten, und keines war das ihre.
Sie schwebten dar?ber im Dunkel der Heimatlosigkeit,
und alles, was sie anz?nden konnten, war die trostlose
Kerze der Sehnsucht . . . (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, pp.
126-27).
155
In this excerpt, physical and emotional distance is closely intertwined
The sight of the illuminated city reminds Ruth and Kern of their refugee status and
awakens their carefully suppressed longing for a conventional existence in safety. This
feeling is intensified by the fact that the Ferris Wheel temporarily separates them
physically from the rest of the world.
  It is essential to keep these two incidents in mind to fully understand the implication of
the novel?s concluding remarks. Having received information that they will soon be able
to leave Europe, Ruth declares: ?Komm, wir wollen hier heraus! La? uns auf die Stra?e
gehen. Nach drau?en. Ich m?chte hier weg. La? uns auf die Stra?e gehen? (Liebe
Deinen N?chsten, p. 319). Ruth?s urge to get out does, however, equally relate to the
social void in which she and Kern have thus far had to exist. Until then, there has
always been a risk involved in going out, but having acquired temporary staying permits
and the tickets for America, Ruth and Kern?s status has altered. They are no longer
b?rgerliche Tote, but have been granted permission to exist again.
32
  Above, it was shown that the physical distance between the young couple in the Ferris
Wheel, the ground and Vienna signifies the emotional exclusion they experience. As the
novel draws to a conclusion, this congruity between the physical and emotional position
is repeated: Ruth and Kern no longer observe life from afar. Instead, they go into the
crowded, Parisian streets and mingle with the commuters. They are no longer exiles in
hiding, but have a route of escape and are soon to commence the longed for,
conventional way of life they see around them. Standing in the midst of the busy streets,
Ruth and Kern experience ? for the first time ? the sensation of being admitted to the
community from which they have thus far been excluded: ?Kern sah Ruth an. ?Wie
156
viele Menschen es gibt?, sagte er. ?Ja?, erwiderte sie. ?Furchtbar viele Menschen??
(Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 319).
  Analogously to the many common aspects which link Remarque?s three early First
World War novels and result in a smooth transition between them, Arc de Triomphe
picks up more or less where Liebe Deinen N?chsten concludes, both geographically and
in relation to the time at which it is set. Arc de Triomphe thus opens in Paris in the late
autumn of 1938 just before Armistice Day, only months after Kern and Ruth have
supposedly left for America. Whereas the characters in Liebe Deinen N?chsten are
continuously on the move, the exile protagonist of Arc de Triomphe, Ravic, has created
for himself a relatively stable existence in Paris. Despite his status as an illegal
immigrant, his expertise as a former chief surgeon in Germany enables him to earn
enough to survive. He carries out difficult operations in a practice owned by two less
skilful French doctors in return for a fraction of the profit. His accommodation consists
of a modest room in H?tel International. This establishment also features in Liebe
Deinen N?chsten and thus forms one of the numerous bonds connecting all of
Remarque?s books. By recycling names, places or events, Remarque systematically
organizes his novels in relation to one another, so that they each come to function as a
separate piece in a wider picture. The slight overlapping in Remarque?s novels gives the
impression of concurrence and parallelism between the lives of the protagonists;
although the individual characters are almost never acquainted.
33
 Hence, Ruth and Kern
do not cease to exist at the end of Liebe Deinen N?chsten simply because the narrative
comes to an end. They escape to America and pursue a new life whilst Ravic, in Arc de
Triomphe, lives as an illegal emigrant in Paris in the years leading up to the Second
World War. Even when Remarque in Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe
turns to the topic of exile, the theme of the First World War is not entirely abandoned.
157
Steiner and Ravic both participated in the First World War and would, in fact, have
been at the age of B?umer, Birkholz and Lohkamp at the time. Although Liebe Deinen
N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe focus on the topic of exile, Ravic and Steiner therefore
not only serve as representatives of the refugee community, but also constitute a link to
Remarque?s earlier novels in their roles as First World War survivors, two decades on.
The reception of Liebe Deinen N?chsten was modest and Remarque was indeed aware
that his novel had stylistic weaknesses.
34
 He consequently modified his narrative
strategies considerably in the writing of his next novel, Arc de Triomphe, although he
retained the third-person perspective.
  As discussed above, Liebe Deinen N?chsten follows the exile-experience of two
refugees. A considerable proportion of the work is depicted from an external
perspective, often intersected by passages of direct speech. The novel also applies a
third-person limited perspective, but there is little consistency in its application, and in
fact the most rounded characters are to be found, as also Barker and Last point out,
amongst the minor characters.
35
 In contrast to this, Arc de Triomphe is viewed almost
entirely from the third-person limited perspective of a single character, Ravic.
36
 In
addition, this novel contains a much more restrained use of dialogue, and the passages
of straight narrative have been manipulated so that they appear to reflect Ravic?s view
even when this is not indicated directly. As in Liebe Deinen N?chsten, the third-person
narrator in Arc de Triomphe thereby remains relatively unnoticeable, but without
adhering to the almost dull neutrality of the narrative voice in the former work. In order
to achieve the consistent impression that Arc de Triomphe is effectively presented solely
from Ravic?s perspective, Remarque utilizes an array of narrative tools.
The most noticeable of these tools is the narrator?s recurrent combination of Ravic?s
name with verbs related to the senses or the conscious mind. These include, for
158
instance: sehen, beobachten, betrachten, h?ren, f?hlen, wissen and denken. Even
lengthy passages, if introduced or interjected by a short phrase incorporating one of
these verbs, automatically appears to convey the viewpoint of the subject of the verb. In
Arc de Triomphe, Ravic constitutes this subject. At his initial encounter with Joan
Madou, for example, the description of her appearance subsequently seems to be
presented from Ravic?s view:
Die Frau legte ihre H?nde auf den Tisch. Sie tat das, als
wollte sie sie nie wieder hochnehmen. Die H?nde waren
gepflegt, aber das besagte nichts. Sie waren auch nicht
sehr gepflegt. Ravic sah, da? der Nagel des rechten
Mittelfingers abgebrochen und scheinbar abgerissen und
nicht weggefeilt worden war. An einigen Stellen war der
Lack abgesprungen [my emphasis] (Arc de Triomphe, p.
12).
 The inclusion of the words ?Ravic sah? is without relevance to the actual description
of Joan. In terms of the narrative perspective, however, it makes a decisive difference:
Although narrated in the third person, it causes the entire quotation to become a
reflection of Ravic?s perception of the woman. When the narrator proceeds to depict
Joan?s face and then her manner of dress, the same technique is applied once more:
Ravic betrachtete sie. Sie hatte ein ausgel?schtes Gesicht,
fahl, fast ohne Ausdruck. Der Mund war voll, aber bla?,
die Konturen schienen verwischt, und nur das Haar war
sehr sch?n, von einem leuchtenden, nat?rlichen Blond. Sie
trug eine Baskenm?tze und unter dem Regenmantel ein
blaues Schneiderkost?m [my emphasis] (Arc de
Triomphe, p. 13).
  Again, the perspective is affected by the information that Ravic is observing Joan.
Similar examples are found in abundance throughout the work.
  Remarque, however, also makes use of a number of other narrative techniques to
divert the attention away from the narrative voice and to make it seem that the novel is
159
related from Ravic?s point-of-view. The application of the particles vielleicht, wohl and
wahrscheinlich, for instance, indicate uncertainty and therefore convey limitation in
perspective as well as the presence of a conscious mind. A similar effect is produced by
the impression of inference which is achieved through use of the verb m?ssen. This is
exemplified in the sentence: ?Er sah Joan, als sie hereinkam. Sie war umgezogen und
mu?te gleich, nachdem er das Hotel verlassen hatte, zur?ckgekommen sein [my
emphasis]? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 221). The narrator does not state factually that Joan
returned to the hotel after Ravic?s departure, but presents a conclusion drawn from the
fact that she has changed for dinner. This creates the effect of Ravic?s thought processes
of inference being illustrated as they occur.
  Although Arc de Triomphe is written in the past tense, the narrative includes time
expressions which grammatically seem incongruous with the preterite. Jetzt, for
instance, is used several times in the narrative: ?Er hatte geglaubt, in einer Stunde
zur?ck zu sein. Jetzt war es drei Stunden sp?ter [my emphases]? (Arc de Triomphe, p.
120).
37
 When adding present tense time-expressions to an otherwise past tense narrative,
the distance decreases between the reader, and the events and characters depicted. The
third-person narrator, however, fades into the background, as the present tense time-
references relates to the narrated present. If the time-word jetzt should have been
presented from the narrator?s perspective, it would have been modified to correlate with
the past tense and the narrator?s distance to the described events. Thus, instead of: ?Jetzt
war es drei Stunden sp?ter?, the sentence could have sounded: ?Es waren drei Stunden
vergangen? or ?drei Stunden waren vergangen?. The inclusion of present tense time-
references in Arc de Triomphe therefore indicates that the perspective is that of Ravic?s.
This impression is further upheld through consistency of register and tone. If viewed in
isolation, the perspective of the following excerpt, for example, is undeterminable:
160
 Nur noch der weite Platz war da mit den verstreuten,
tr?ben Monden der Laternen und dem steinernen Bogen
des Arc, der sich riesig im Nebel verlor, als st?tzte er den
schwerm?tigen Himmel und sch?tze unter sich die
einsame, bleiche Flamme auf dem Grab des Unbekannten
Soldaten, das aussah wie das letzte Grab der Menschheit
inmitten von Nacht und Verlassenheit (Arc de Triomphe,
p. 15).
  The point-of-view is unclear. However, the poetic tendency and the subsequently
melancholic atmosphere of the passage are echoed shortly after in a statement by Ravic.
Travelling to the clinic by taxi, he orders the driver to speed up. As this almost results in
a collision with another vehicle, Ravic tells him to slow down at crossroads:
?Das wollte ich sowieso. Verdammte Schmiere auf der
Stra?e. Aber weshalb fragen Sie mich eigentlich, wenn
Sie nachher nichts h?ren wollen??
?Weil ich m?de bin?, erwiderte Ravic ungeduldig. ?Weil
es Nacht ist. Meinetwegen auch, weil wir Funken in
einem unbekannten Wind sind. Fahren Sie zu? (Arc de
Triomphe, p. 20).
  The two examples above appear in close proximity. In other parts of the work, similar
congruence exists between Ravic?s tone and that of the passages characterized by
perspectival ambiguity. These parts of the novel therefore all come to read as reflecting
Ravic?s point-of-view.
  As discussed in the previous chapter, Kameraden is written solely from the perspective
of Lohkamp. When he first encounters Pat, she is therefore initially referred to with the
impersonal term of das M?dchen. Reminiscent of this technique, the characters Ravic
becomes acquainted with in the course of Arc de Triomphe are not named by the
narrator until Ravic has acquired the knowledge of their identities. The narrator?s
register, even with regards to names, is thus carefully considered in order not to exceed
161
the scope of Ravic?s perspective. This is demonstrated in relation to Joan?s character as
well as with the disagreeable Bobo. The relationship between the former and Ravic will
be elaborated upon below, but the example of Bobo also warrants some attention. In his
profession as a doctor, Ravic visits a young woman, Lucienne. Her boyfriend, Bobo,
refuses to leave the room during the examination:
Der Bursche grinste und spreizte behaglich die Beine. Er
trug spitze Lackschuhe und violette Str?mpfe.
?Bitte, Bobo?, sagte Lucienne. ?Es dauert sicher nur einen
Augenblick.?
Aber Bobo beachtete sie nicht. Er fixierte Ravic (Arc de
Triomphe, p. 124).
Until this moment, the narrator has ? in line with Ravic?s perspective ? referred to
Bobo exclusively as der Bursche. The narrator only starts applying Bobo?s name after
the doctor gains knowledge of it. The use of what must be presumed to be the
boyfriend?s nickname also functions to convey, succinctly, Ravic?s perception of
Lucienne?s boyfriend: Whereas the girl?s emotional involvement with the dandy
explains her use of his nickname, the narrator?s application of it gives the tone a tinge
of mockery. This subtle ridicule shows that Ravic regards the boyfriend to be unworthy
of any level of respect.
38
As opposed to the recurrent use of the external perspective in Liebe Deinen N?chsten,
a considerable part of Arc de Triomphe is directly concerned with the thoughts and
emotions of Ravic. Grammatically incomplete sentence-structures are used to simulate
thoughts, which after all generally appear in disorder and rarely in compliance with
grammatical rules. In the following extract, Ravic returns to his hotel after having
carried out an operation. He goes to the bathroom to freshen up:
162
Er drehte die Dusche an. Das k?hle Wasser str?mte ?ber
seine Haut. Er atmete tief und trocknete sich ab. Der Trost
der kleinen Dinge. Wasser, Atem, abendlicher Regen. Nur
wer allein war, kannte auch die. Dankbare Haut. Leichtes,
in den dunklen Kan?len hinschie?endes Blut. Auf einer
Wiese zu liegen. Birken. Wei?e Sommerwolken. Der
Himmel der Jugend. Wo waren die Abenteuer des Herzens
geblieben? Erschlagen von den finsteren Abenteuern des
Daseins. Er ging in das Zimmer zur?ck [my emphases]?
(Arc de Triomphe, p. 30).
  The short, mostly incomplete grammatical units resemble the manner in which
thoughts often occur. In contrast, the sentences which explain Ravic?s actions are
grammatically complete. Both in terms of form and content, these sentences thus
constitute a framework for the thoughts. The highlighted lines in the quotation above
thereby appear to take place in Ravic?s mind, while the framework-lines explain his
physical activities.
  In addition to adding texture locally, repetition is also applied in Arc de Triomphe as a
means of making the narrative resemble thoughts. When Ravic realizes that he is losing
Joan, his body language and manner of conversing remain composed. However, a
sudden, pronounced change in sentence-structure and the use of repetition reveal that,
inside, he is in fact in a state of panic. As in the above example, the underlined parts
show Ravic?s thoughts:
?Das ist die ?lteste Frage der Menschheit, Joan. Warum ?
die Frage, an der alle Logik, alle Philosophie, alle
Wissenschaft bis jetzt zerbrochen sind.?
Sie ging. Sie ging. Sie war an der T?r. Etwas schnellte in
Ravic hoch. Sie ging. Sie ging. Er richtete sich auf. Es war
umm?glich, alles war unm?glich, nur eine Nacht noch,
eine Nacht, einmal noch das schlafende Gesicht an der
Schulter, morgen konnte man k?mpfen, einmal noch
diesen Atem neben sich, einmal noch in dem Fallen die
sanfte Illusion, den s??en Betrug. Geh nicht, geh nicht,
wir sterben in Schmerzen und leben in Schmerzen, geh
nicht, geh nicht, was habe ich denn? [my emphases]? (Arc
de Triomphe, p. 361).
163
  The change in register from Ravic?s direct speech to the straight narrative is striking.
The repetitions convey Ravic?s distress at the prospect of Joan leaving. The shortness of
the repeated statements ?sie ging ? sie ging? and ?geh nicht, geh nicht? creates a staccato
effect and increased pace which correlate with Ravic?s palpitating heart in his moment
of panic. Another noticeable aspect in the latter quotation is its switch from the past
tense to the present ? and regards perspective: from erlebte Rede to direct interior
monologue.
39
  The switch to the present tense and Ravic?s assumption of a first-person
narrative voice reduce the distance between the reader and Ravic. This technique of
switching to the first-person via erlebte Rede occurs on a number of occasions in the
novel. It thus plays a significant part in the successful creation of Ravic as a ?round? or
believable character. In comparison, the extensive use of an external perspective in
Liebe Deinen N?chsten leaves Kern, Steiner and Ruth less convincing.
  As in Drei Kameraden, Arc de Triomphe opens with the protagonist?s encounter with a
woman and concludes with this woman?s death. It therefore cannot be disputed that
Joan Madou plays a key role in Arc de Triomphe. As an individual, though, she is of
little import to the story; it is rather her function as an agent in Ravic?s emotional
development that is the essence of her role. Joan is thus portrayed as Ravic sees her,
from an external perspective only. Despite the novel?s historical backdrop, the
relationship between Joan and Ravic has often been the centre of literary criticism in
relation to Arc de Triomphe. This is not least because of the inspiration which
Remarque allegedly found for this novel in his relationship with Marlene Dietrich.
40
  Joan Madou is not named from the beginning. Instead, the narrator uses the impersonal
third-person pronoun sie or refers to her as die Frau. After Ravic learns her name, she is
164
mentioned by her full name. It is only after they start a relationship that Joan is referred
to by her first name. A similar gradual decrease in the formality of address was
identified also in the analysis of Kameraden where it assisted in conveying the
developing relationship between Pat and Lohkamp.  However, whereas Lohkamp
delivered the narrative voice in Kameraden, Ravic is not the narrator of Arc de
Triomphe. Nevertheless, since the narrator?s different references to Joan correlate with
Ravic?s gradual emotional involvement with her, the changing manner of address
furthers the impression that the passages which are essentially ambiguous in terms of
perspective are indeed showing Ravic?s point-of-view.
  Although the narrative adheres to Ravic?s perspective, there are a few occasions on
which also Joan?s emotions are exposed. In order that the perspective should not exceed
that of Ravic, however, the reader does not gain direct access to Joan?s thoughts.
Instead, she declares her emotions verbally: ?Ich f?hle, da? ich lebe; ich f?hle es mit
allem, was ich bin?; and shortly after: ?Es ist da etwas, das allein bleiben will. Ich f?hle
es? [my emphases] (Arc de Triomphe, p. 158). In this manner the reader gets a little
insight into her mind; although, of course, the insight is not firsthand but based on what
Joan claims to be experiencing emotionally. Nonetheless, this extra facet to the
presentation of her assists in making her character believable.
  As discussed above, register, and particularly the aspect related to sentence-structure,
can have an impact on the pace and thus on the whole manner in which a piece of
narrative is understood. It was shown to constitute an important narrative tool in
marking Ravic?s direct interior monologues, as the reader would subsequently
automatically understand the straight narrative to be representing Ravic?s thoughts. In
relation to Joan?s character the register is used to depict her personality. The portrayal
of her thereby comes to seem less biased, since the reader is encouraged to draw his or
165
her own conclusion purely from Joan?s language. Joan Madou is essentially a
materialization of life itself. Her pursuit of a carefree existence is expressed not only in
the plot, but also through the form. Whereas Ravic is melancholic and philosophical to
the extent that the pace of the narrative, at times, almost comes to a halt, Joan is
superficial and fluttery. This is conveyed in the following monologue, where she jumps
from topic to topic, as the individual thoughts occur to her. Her statement follows an
argument which resulted in Ravic and her spending the day apart:
Vergi?, was heute war! Denk nicht einmal mehr dar?ber
nach! Du f?hrst wunderbar Auto, wei?t du das? Was du da
eben gemacht hast, war gro?artig. Die Idioten haben es
auch gesagt. Sie haben gestern gesehen, was du mit dem
Wagen anstellen kannst. Du bist unheimlich. Du hast
keine Vergangenheit. Man wei? nichts von dir. Ich wei?
schon hundertmal mehr aus dem Leben der Idioten als aus
deinem. Glaubst du, da? ich irgendwo einen Calvados
bekommen kann? Nach all den Aufregungen heute nacht
[sic] brauche ich einen. Es ist schwer, mit dir zu leben
(Arc de Triomphe, p. 224).
  Whereas Joan signifies life, the Nazi, Haake, represents death.
41
 The latter is said to
have tortured and eventually caused the death of Ravic?s wife. There is therefore a
certain balance in the opposition of the characters Joan and Haake, and their
connections with Ravic. The first half of the work focuses on Ravic?s relationship to
Joan; the concluding half is to a large extent concerned with his revenge on Haake. At
the end of the novel, both Joan and Haake die, although Ravic does his utmost to save
Joan?s life. In contrast to this, he endeavours and indeed succeeds in taking that of
Haake. Joan and Haake both stir strong, but antithetic, emotions in Ravic. These
extremes of emotion ? love and hatred ? make him feel alive, and the link between Joan
and Haake is thus that they both contribute to bringing Ravic out of the state of
indifference which governs his life at the opening of the work.
42
 
43
 The novel in fact
concludes with a sense of closure for Ravic. This is implied also in his resumption of his
166
real name Ludwig Fresenburg.
44
 In the course of the novel, Ravic (or Fresenburg)
therefore reaches a sense of emotional fulfilment: ?Er hatte einen Menschen geliebt und
ihn verloren. Er hatte einen anderen geha?t und ihn get?tet. Beide hatten ihn befreit.
[?] Es war nichts zur?ckgeblieben, was unerf?llt war? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 451). He
therefore does not seek to escape arrest as France enters the war.
  A discreet parallel can be drawn between the events in Joan?s life as an individual, and
those affecting France as a nation. In her private life, Joan has in the past nonchalantly
dismissed threats from jealous lovers: ??Er wollte mich t?ten.? Sie lachte. ?Immer
wollen sie einen t?ten. Ein paar Monate sp?ter wollte mich der andere t?ten. Sie tun das
nie?? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 156). At a much larger scale, France (and the rest of Europe)
similarly ignored the possible danger which Hitler imposed. Ravic?s employer, Veber,
represents the general French attitude which is as carefree as that expressed by Joan:
?Veber sah auf [?]. Er verga?, die Zigarre anzuz?nden. ?Es kann keinen Krieg geben,
Ravic! Es kann einfach nicht! Es ist Gebell und Gedrohe. Im letzten Augenblick wird
noch etwas geschehen!?? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 446). Both Joan (the individual) and
France (the nation) prove to have misjudged their situations. The consequences they
each face as a result are described figuratively. The images applied are inconspicuously
intertwined. Only hours before Joan is shot by her theatrical lover, Ravic notices that
the city of Paris has been partly blacked out. This event is expressed in images of
disease and death:
Wie r?udige Stellen in einem gl?nzenden Fell sprangen
hier und da Flecken kranker Finsternis hervor. [?]
Einzelne Stra?en lagen schon blind da, als w?ren
schwarze W?rmer durchgekrochen und h?tten allen Glanz
zerdr?ckt. Die Avenue George V hatte kein Licht mehr; in
der Avenue Montaigne starb er gerade [?]. Die eine
H?lfte der Avenue Victor Emanuell III war erloschen; die
andere stand noch hell da ? wie ein paralysierter K?rper
in Agonie, halb schon tot, halb noch voll Leben. Die
167
Krankheit sickerte ?berall durch [my emphases] (Arc de
Triomphe, p. 453).
  The city is personified and compared to a dying body. This adds a certain aesthetic
quality to the passage, but the real notion behind the figurative language only reveals
itself when Joan is shot in a succeeding paragraph. In contrast to the description of the
city, the seriousness of her injuries is conveyed through references to darkness:
Die Wunde wurde einen Schatten grauer, als wehe ein
Hauch Dunkelheit dar?ber. [?] Das Blut hatte noch
immer den bleiernen Schein. [?] Das Blut wurde dunkler.
Es war, als z?gen drau?en Wolken und w?rfen ihre
Schatten vor?ber. Als st?nde jemand vor den Fenstern un
z?ge die Vorh?nge zu (Arc de Triomphe, p. 465).
  The images applied in relation to Joan and the blacked out city of Paris have thus been
inverted. This creates a subtle link between them, in addition to giving the narrative
aesthetic quality locally.
  The Arc de Triomphe which gives the novel its title figures as a recurrent motive
throughout the work. It is one of the monuments mostly associated with Paris and the
title therefore immediately suggests the geographical setting of the work.
  It is its representation of a powerful and victorious France, however, which is
significant. Throughout the novel, the monument is continuously submerged in fog, and,
on one occasion, the sound of a military orchestra playing in its vicinity is thus thin and
barely audible:
Der Himmel war bedeckt, und die Strahlen der
Scheinwerfer warfen den Schatten der Fahne matt,
verwischt und zerrissen gegen die ziehenden Wolken. Es
sah aus, als versinke dort ein zerfetztes Banner in der
langsam tiefer werdenden Dunkelheit. Eine Milit?rkapelle
spielte irgendwo. Es klang d?nn und blechern (Arc de
Triomphe, p. 48).
168
  Symbolically, this portrayal of the arch and the imagery of a torn flag signify the
weakened position of France. As war breaks out at the end of the novel, the arch is
therefore no longer visible: ?Nirgendwo brannte ein Licht. Der Platz war nichts als
Finsternis. Es war so dunkel, da? man auch den Arc de Triomphe nicht mehr sehen
konnte? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 480). France has entered an era of darkness literally as
well as symbolically. As the arch submerges into darkness, so does also the memorial
for the unknown soldier beneath it. This feature, which is referred to a few times in the
novel, constitutes one of the many connections to Remarque?s early works, as B?umer
from Im Westen is ? or rather becomes ? the unknown soldier. However, at the end of
Arc de Triomphe, the monument and the memorial grave are no longer visible. With the
oblivion of his memory, the pledge which B?umer made his French victim, Duval, is
also broken. B?umer?s promise of ?nie wieder? (Im Westen, p. 154) becomes void as
Europe braces itself for the Second World War.
45
  In terms of minor characters, Arc de Triomphe is less prolific than Liebe Deinen
N?chsten. This is mainly a reflection of the fact that the plot of the former revolves
around Ravic?s life in Paris, whereas Kern and Steiner in Liebe Deinen N?chsten have
no fixed base, but move from place to place. The three months in the spring of 1939
which Ravic spends attempting to re-enter France following deportation are not
depicted. The details of this period are essentially of little relevance to the plot, since the
novel?s main storyline is Ravic?s development as he experiences emotions of love,
hatred and revenge. Had Ravic?s three months in Switzerland been included in the
novel, the list of characters would inevitably have been longer.
  A considerable part of the characterization of the minor characters takes place
implicitly through their direct speech. There is, for instance, no doubt about the anti-
Semitic stance of the hospital nurse, Eugenie, when she states: ?Sch?nes Hotel, die
169
Judenbude? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 87). Also the manner in which statements are being
delivered can be informative. Veber?s trouble-free life, for example, is partly
communicated through the mere fact that he delivers most of his lines with a smile.
46
One of the nurses in the clinic speaks with a similar blitheness. In her case, the contrast
between her carefree tone and the suffering she is surrounded by is particularly striking:
Die Schwester l?chelte ?ber ihr Apfelgesicht. ?Ich habe
ihn gern?, erkl?rte sie redselig. ?Manche Kranke sind
nat?rlich anstrengend, aber die meisten sind sehr nett.
Madame Brissot hat mir gestern ein sch?nes, fast neues
Seidenkleid geschenkt. Und die letzte Woche habe ich
von Madame Lerner ein Paar Lackschuhe bekommen.
Von der, die dann zu Hause gestorben ist.? Sie l?chelte
wieder [my emphases]? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 131).
  The tone of the nurse reveals her emotional disengagement with the reality of the
hospital environment, and suggests that she is incapable of identifying with the stress
and pain endured by many of the patients. A more extreme example of inappropriate
joyfulness is found in Liebe Deinen N?chsten. The Nazi-character, Steinbrenner, is
made especially disagreeable by the fact that he speaks with a giggle. This produces an
unpleasant contrast between the seriousness of his words and the cheerful manner in
which he delivers them:
?Ich habe dich nicht vergessen, Steinbrenner?, erwiderte
Steiner ruhig.
?Wird dir auch schwerfallen?, kicherte der Mann.
?Herzlich willkommen zu Hause! Freue mich wirklich,
dich wiederzusehen. Wirst ja jetzt wohl ein bi?chen bei
uns bleiben, was? Wir haben ein wundersch?nes, neues
Lager, mit allem Komfort.?
[?] ?Ja, die Liebe!? kicherte Steinbrenner. ?F?hrt die
ausgekochtesten V?gel ins Nest zur?ck ? zum Wohl des
Staates und zur Freude ihrer Freunde? [my emphases]
(Arc de Triomphe, p. 308).
170
  Although the perspective of Arc de Triomphe remains almost consistently that of
Ravic, Stephani is not entirely correct in claiming that ?die monoperspektivische
Darstellung [?] bis ans Ende des Romans konsequent beibehalten [wird]?.
47
 There is a
limited extent of deviation from the otherwise consistent perspective of Ravic, their
rarity and fleeting occurrences make it justifiable to discard them merely as authorial
slips.
48
 Remarque in fact perceived Arc de Triomphe to be a novel written from a single
perspective. In a newspaper interview from the late 1960s, the author explains:
Ich habe immer alles in Szenen geschrieben, dramatisiert,
alles von einem einzigen Punkt, von einer einzigen Person
aus. Nehmen Sie den Ravic in ?Arc de Triomphe?, wenn
er nicht da ist, ist kein Buch mehr da. Das gibt die
Spannung, das ist schwer zu schreiben; ?ber der
Leichtigkeit vergessen die Leute, wie genau es gearbeitet
wird, und warum alles vibriert.
49
  In order to maintain the impression that Ravic is the central mind of Arc de Triomphe,
Remarque continuously situates his protagonist so he becomes a witness to any events
the author wishes to incorporate in the novel. Even unlikely information therefore
reaches the attention of Ravic:
In der Schl?chterei unten stand jetzt der Geselle, ein
gelbgesichtiger Mensch ohne die Passion der Wirtin. Er
hackte lustlos herum. Seit dem Trauerfall war er
bedeutend m?der geworden. Seine Chance, die Meisterin
zu heiraten, war gering. Ein B?rstenbinder gegen?ber im
Bistro erkl?rte das laut und auch, da? sie ihn vorher
ebenfalls zum Friedhof bringen w?rde (Arc de Triomphe,
p. 127).
  The source of Ravic?s insight is identified as local gossip voiced loudly by a broom-
and brushmaker in the pub. Hence, the perspective remains in line with that of Ravic.
171
Even events during which Ravic has clearly not been present are skilfully manipulated,
so as to suggest that Ravic has been told about them. This is achieved through a simple
alteration of tense from the imperfect to the pluperfect: ?Nachts ging er noch einmal zur
Klinik. Kate Hegstr?m schlief. Sie war abends aufgewacht, hatte erbrochen, ungef?hr
eine Stunde unruhig gelegen und war denn wieder eingeschlafen [my emphases]? (Arc
de Triomphe, p. 108).
  The analysis above focuses predominantly on the aspect of narrative perspective. Arc
de Triomphe does, however, equally reflect the author?s careful application of other
formal elements, such as the register, imagery and structure (especially locally). Some
of these have also been explored in the analysis. When considering the development of
Remarque?s writing skills, though, the change in the narrative perspective is particularly
striking between Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe. It is applied with much
more control in the latter novel, and Remarque uses a narrative stance which is more apt
for the contents of the work. Only a detailed study of the numerous tools which
Remarque applies in order to create a consistent perspective reveals the extent of
technical improvement from Liebe Deinen N?chsten to Arc de Triomphe, and the
dominating attention to the narrative point-of-view was therefore unavoidable.
Remarque?s choice of form in Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe is plainly
dissimilar. In these two novels, Remarque demonstrates the range of possibilities which
are open to an author writing through a third-person narrative voice. The two works
differ considerably in terms of perspective, and the reader?s sense of distance to events
and characters therefore also comes to vary. In Liebe Deinen N?chsten, for example, the
recurrent application of an external perspective makes it difficult to get close even to the
main character, Kern, and although this appears to have been Remarque?s intention,
50
the contrasting and consistent use in Arc de Triomphe of Ravic?s third-person limited
172
perspective and the regular access to his thoughts makes this character much more
rounded and convincing.
 Remarque might have had film in mind when he decided to narrate a considerable part
of Liebe Deinen N?chsten from a camera-like viewpoint, as this would certainly ease an
adaptation of the novel into a film.
51
 However, considering the form of Remarque?s
original medium ? the novel ? it is precisely the possibility of entering into the mind of
the characters that constitutes a part of its appeal.
52
 The repeated insight into Ravic?s
thoughts in Arc de Triomphe thus encourages the reader to empathize with his character.
The fact that much of the novel focuses on the mind of its protagonist did, however,
also complicate the task of adequately adapting Arc de Triomphe for the screen, and the
final film-product did indeed not enjoy great success.
53
  Within the context of Remarque?s oeuvre, the narrative strategies applied in Liebe
Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe show development as well as continuation of
previously used techniques. The most noticeable formal transition in Remarque?s
narrative strategies is, of course, his switch to the third-person perspective. In Liebe
Deinen N?chsten, the author thus experiments with distance and perspectival
possibilities within the frame-work of this perspective. As a result, Steiner and Kern are
not presented with equal centrality to the story. In his diaries, Remarque identifies Kern
as his protagonist ? not Steiner ? so it is justifiable to assume that the author was aware
of the effect which perspective and distance exercise on the reader-character
relationship. Nonetheless, Liebe Deinen N?chsten remains somewhat disorganized and
unimpressive in relation to its narrative strategies. Too many different perspectives are
used without consistency or apparent logic. In comparison, Arc de Triomphe displays a
much more controlled handling of the perspective. In fact, due to the fact that the
narrative point-of-view in Arc de Triomphe is almost exclusively identical with that of
173
Ravic, his character almost functions as an Ich-Erz?hler. The claim that Ravic is
?sketchily drawn and out of focus? is therefore unjust,
54
 and it indeed seems to correlate
poorly with the fact that Arc de Triomphe has been termed Remarque?s ?second
bestseller?.
55
 Despite high sales figures, particularly in America, the reviews remained
largely modest in Germany.
56
 The T?gliche Rundschau is especially negative:
?Remarque ist abgeglitten. [?] Es ist bezeichnend f?r die Mentalit?t des heutigen
Amerikas, da? ausgerechnet dieses in jeder Hinsicht zweifelhafte und nihilistische
Literaturwerk dr?ben zu den ?Best-Sellern? geh?rt?. Arc de Triomphe was generally
criticized for being too sentimental. However, similarly to Im Westen, this work
presents the subjective perspective of a single individual and, as with many of
Remarque?s other protagonists, Ravic is depicted at a time of historical and personal
crisis. The argument which was applied in the analysis of Im Westen is therefore equally
applicable to Arc de Triomphe: A certain amount of sentiment is not only justifiable, but
perhaps even required in order to make the depiction realistic. In comparison, Liebe
Deinen N?chsten adopts an external perspective through large parts of the novel. The
work, as a whole, is subsequently ineffective in encouraging the reader to engage with
the seriousness of the issues depicted. Although neither of the two novels discussed in
this chapter received impressive reviews, they testify to a development in Remarque?s
narrative strategies. Whereas Liebe Deinen N?chsten can be perceived an initial
experiment in terms of both form and content, Arc de Triomphe skilfully combines the
exile-theme and third-person perspective with the close-up portrayal of a single
individual and representative of a wider group of victims.
174
                                   Notes to Liebe Deinen N?chsten
                                 and Arc de Triomphe
1. Matthias Wegner, Exil und Literatur: Deutsche Schriftsteller im Ausland 1933-1945
(Frankfurt am Main and Bonn: Athen?um, 1968), pp. 32-37.
2. The burning of Remarque?s books was preceded by the words: ?Gegen literarischen
Verrat am Soldaten des Weltkrieges! F?r Erziehung des Volkes im Geist der
Wehrhaftigkeit! Ich ?bergebe der Flamme die Schriften von Erich Maria Remarque!?
Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 240; Hans Wagener, ?Remarque in Amerika
? zwischen Erfolg und Exilbewu?tsein?, p. 18.
3. Wegner points to the duality of the pressure of emigration life. He speaks of both the
??u?ere? and ?innere Belastung des Exils?, and, to stress the effects that the
psychological pressure alone exercised on the individual, suggests that the ?innere?
more than the ??u?ere? strains led to the suicides of both Stefan Zweig and Ernst Toller.
Wegner, Exil und Literatur: Deutsche Schriftsteller im Ausland 1933-1945, pp. 13-14,
94-100.
4. The emigration-theme was explored by many other writers in exile such as Lion
Feuchtwanger, Stefan Zweig, Hans Habe, Anna Seghers, Alfred D?blin, Carl
Zuckmayer and F. C. Wei?kopf.
5. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and Film Biography, p. 147.
6. In this context, Sternburg comments ?da? Ironie generell kein vertieftes Stilmittel
seiner [Remarques] Epik ist. [?] ?Liebe Deinen N?chsten? ist also einer der
kategorischen Imperative, die der Schriftsteller Remarque einer moralisch enthemmten
Welt entgegensetzt. Und er meint dies nicht ironisch, sondern bitterernst?. Sternburg,
Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, pp. 295-96.
7. Gottfried Nickl, Im Westen nichts Neues und sein wahrer Sinn: Eine Betrachtung
?ber den Pazifismus und Antwort an Remarque (Heimgarten Sonderheft) (Graz:
Leopold St?cker, 1930), pp. 15-16.
8. Taylor likewise notes the resemblance between the relationship of Steiner and Kern,
and that of B?umer and Katczinsky. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and
Film Biography, p. 148.
9. ?Die Geschichte der Hauptfigur Ludwig Kern beruhte auf einer tats?chlichen
Biographie eines Exilanten, mit dem Remarque gesprochen hatte?. Jan-Christopher
Horak, ?Ewig auf der Flucht: Die Romanverfilmung So Ends Our Night?, in Erich
Maria Remarque: Leben, Werk und weltweite Wirkung, edited by Thomas F. Schneider
(Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1998), pp. 235-49 (p. 239). In connection with negative reviews of
175
Liebe Deinen N?chsten, Remarque?s diary entry from 22 April 1941 states: ?Typisch, ?
weil ich Kern kannte. [?] ? das verschob das klare Bild der Erfindung?. Remarque, Das
unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 351. The following year Remarque
likewise notes: ?Mittags gefunden, was falsch war in Flotsam [Liebe Deinen N?chsten]:
Steiner nicht zu Hauptfigur zu machen. Grund: Kern, der pers?nlich in Porto Ronco
erschien, mich beeinflu?te?. Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und
Tageb?cher, p. 358.
10. Hanns-Gerd Rabe, ?Remarque und Osnabr?ck?, Osnabr?cker Mitteilungen:
Mitteilungen des Vereins f?r Geschichte und Landeskunde von Osnabr?ck, 77
(Osnabr?ck: Meinders und Elstermann, 1970), pp. 197-246 (pp. 230-39).
11. A diary entry from 20 March 1938 states: ?[?] Zwanzigj?hriger Emigrant. Seit vier
Jahren von Grenze zu Grenze geworfen. Ausgestattet f?r Schwarzfahrt Paris, damit er
dort falschen Pa? kaufen kann. Entsetzliches Leben. War aber hoffnungsvoll. Hat ein
Paar hundert Franken. Soviel, wie nie fr?her. Sp?ter Korn zur Bahn gebracht? (From the
unpublished diaries). The diaries then testify that, only weeks later, Remarque started
working on an exile-novel. The characters ?Ruth u. Korn? (not Kern) are mentioned in
the diaries from the 19 February and 5 March 1939. (From the unpublished diaries.
Source held in the Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenszentrum, Osnabr?ck). The mixture
of fiction and reality is confirmed when Remarque, a couple of years later, having
created a fictional emigrant named Kern, accidentally refers to also the real refugee as
?Kern? (see quotation in note 9).
12. Genette, Narrative Discourse, pp. 213-14.
13. Boa and Reid juxtapose the perspective of drama with that of the novel. They
propose that drama unfolds itself and that its form is subsequently direct and objective.
In contrast, the novel is always narrated through a medium, and they therefore ascribe it
the characteristics of indirectness and subjectivity. Boa and Reid, Critical Strategies:
German Fiction in the Twentieth Century, p. 1.
14. Jeanine Delpech, ?Remarque in Paris?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook,
7 (1997), pp. 110-16 (pp. 111-12).
15. Asked in 1938 by interviewer Jeanine Delpech if he intended to continue writing
novels from a first-person perspective, Remarque replied: ? ? Nein, ich werde in
Zukunft eine andere Technik haben, andere Romane schreiben. Ich finde jedoch, da? es
f?r einen Anf?nger eine gute ?bung ist, in der Ersten Person zu schreiben?. Delpech,
?Remarque in Paris?, p. 111. The assumption of the third-person perspective in Liebe
Deinen N?chsten, which Remarque started working on around the time of the interview,
can thus be interpreted as Remarque?s exploration of other narrative approaches.
16. Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 352.
17. Antkowiak notes: ?[D]ie Erz?hlform in der dritten Person erlaubt eine ?objektivere?
Musterung des Wirklichen; sie schaft gewisserma?en Distanz?. Antkowiak, Erich Maria
Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 73.
18. Boa and Reid, Critical Strategies: German Fiction in the Twentieth Century, p. 1.
176
19. Jonathan Culler, Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford etc.: Oxford
University Press, 2000), p. 90. For alternative expressions, Boa and Reid propose
Robert Humphrey?s term ?indirect interior monologue?, whereas Genette speaks of
?focalization?; that is, the narrative is limited to the viewpoint of one or more characters,
whilst the third-person perspective is preserved. Boa and Reid, Critical Strategies:
German Fiction in the Twentieth Century, p. 3; Genette, Narrative Discourse, pp. 189-
94.
20. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 115.
21. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 56-57.
22. This modified form of Genette?s terms ?focalization? or ?focalizing? has been
employed by Jonathan Culler. It refers to the character(s) through whom focalization
takes place. The verb ?to focalize? can likewise be found in Culler?s work. Culler,
Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction, pp. 88-89.
23. The recurrent evocation of images of ships makes the English title, Flotsam,
particularly apposite.
24. The three passages depicting Barbara Klein, Vater Moritz and Dr. Goldbach need to
be read in their entirety and viewed in the context of the novel as a whole, in order for
the reader to understand the circumstances and despair that govern the lives of these
characters, and eventually drive Barbara to commit suicide. It therefore does not seem
beneficial to provide short excerpts from the passages in question. The three sections are
found in Liebe Deinen N?chsten, pp. 180-84, 203-05 (Dr. Goldbach); 279-83 (Barbara
Klein); 311-13 (Vater Moritz).
25. Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels, p. 117.
26. ?Ravic ist bereits mein dritter Name. Ich habe ihn seit fast zwei Jahren. Nichts
passiert seitdem. Scheint mir Gl?ck zu bringen. Gewinne ihn t?glich lieber. Meinen
wirklichen habe ich schon fast vergessen? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 53). His real name,
Ludwig Fresenburg, is only disclosed at the end of the novel. For the sake of
clarification however, the narrator continues to apply the name, Ravic, under which the
reader has come to know this character.
27. ?Er versuchte, eine Beziehung zu den Gesichtern herzustellen, eine Art von
Gesetzm??igkeit, die jede Erscheinung des Zuf?lligen entkleidete, aber es gelang ihm
nicht. Er vertauschte die Gesichter und die Kopfbedeckungen, und nichts ?nderte sich.
Er erkannte, da? es ein Massengesicht war, und in dieser Erkenntnis ging ihm
unvermittelt der Sinn der Uniform auf, des Helmes, des Gleichschrittes.? Wiechert,
Jedermann, p. 27; ?Ich bin nicht mehr ich, sondern F?silier Sowieso. Es gibt kein
Sonderstreben mehr. Ein Gemeinschaftsziel erhebt sich starr.? Schauwecker, Der
feurige Weg, p. 6.
28. Stefan Zweig, Die Welt von Gestern: Erinnerungen eines Europ?ers ([1944]
Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1981), p. 468.
177
29. Alfred D?blin, Schicksalsreise: Bericht und Bekenntnis ([1949] Leipzig: St. Benno:
1980), p. 21.
30. Remarque introduces Liebe Deinen N?chsten with a short statement that also
features in a diary entry from around the time when he was writing the novel: ?Man
braucht ein starkes Herz, um ohne Wurzel zu leben ? ? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 3);
Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 331.
31. As mentioned above, there are only few occasions on which the narrator?s point-of-
view reveals itself locally. This quotation constitutes such an exception. It is not
focalized; it is the narrator?s standpoint which is depicted. Hence, the simile ?wie drei
verirrte Kinder, die mit gro?en Augen dasa?en? conveys an image of helplessness and
neglect with which the narrator aims to create sympathy for the emigrants.
32. Whilst in Switzerland, Kern appears in court and explains his situation to the judge:
??Ich bin ein Schatten, ein Gespenst, ein b?rgerlicher Toter. [?] Wir existieren f?r
Deutschland nicht mehr. F?r die ?brige Welt nur noch als Subjekte f?r die Polizei.? Der
Richter sch?ttelte den Kopf. [?] ?Sie sind doch viele Tausende; und Sie m?ssen doch
irgendwie existieren d?rfen!?? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 209).
33. There are few exceptions. As with the reappearance of, for instance, Katzcin[s]ky?s
name in the First World War novels, Remarque?s last novel Das gelobte Land (Schatten
im Paradies) brings up the names of both Ravic and Joan Madou (Das gelobte Land,
pp. 78, 356). These reencounters with already familiar character-names contribute
towards tying the novels together and creating a wider image of often overlooked
groups of victims. Each novel thereby contributes its particular facet to this image.
34. In his diary, Remarque states, for instance: ?Kritik New-Yorker. Schlecht. Vermi?t
die Handlung u. die interessanten Leute. Findet die Minor-Charaktere viel interessanter
als die Hauptch. Stimmt. Ich wollte das auch. Wollte Kern u. Ruth als
Dutzendmenschen durchgehen lassen. Darin liegt wohl der Fehler des Scriptes. H?tte
andere Typen nehmen m?ssen. Bestimmt! Das ist die Schw?che. Als ?Hotel
International? w?re es viel besser gewesen. Lernen?. Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk,
V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, pp. 352.
35. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 112.
36. Susanne Stephani?s article on Arc de Triomphe comments on the narrative
perspective. Susanne Stephani, ?? . . . Weil wir Funken in einem unbekannten Wind
sind?. Erich Maria Remarque: Arc de Triomphe?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/
Yearbook, 13 (2003), pp. 42-77 (pp. 49-52).
37. Other examples are found: ?Er wu?te jetzt, da? er wartete [my emphasis]? (Arc de
Triomphe, p. 145); ?Nun wu?te er es [my emphasis]? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 305).
38. The same technique is used in Drei Kameraden. The new lover of a recently
widowed man tries to persuade him to buy a flashy car: ?Sieh mal, Puppi, das ist ein
Wagen! Fabelhaft! Das lass? ich mir gefallen!? Im n?chsten Augenblick hatte sie die
T?r schon offen und sa? drin, schielend vor Begeisterung. ?Das sind Sitze! Kolossal!
Wie Klubsessel! Das ist was anderes als der Ford!? ?Na, komm schon?, sagte Puppi
178
mi?mutig? (Kameraden, p. 82). The latter use of the nickname ?Puppi? displays the
same ridiculing effect as the narrator?s reference to Lucienne?s boyfriend as ?Bobo? in
Arc de Triomphe.
39. Whereas erlebte Rede shows a character?s thoughts in the past tense and without
any external interference, direct interior monologue displays the character?s thoughts as
they develop and in the present tense. Boa and Reid, Critical Strategies: German
Fiction in the Twentieth Century, pp. 3-4.
40. Hilton Tims suggests that Arc de Triomphe is dedicated to M. D. (Marlene
Dietrich), although this is not the case. Tims, Erich Maria Remarque: The last
Romantic, p. 129. Nonetheless, there are indications of a connection between
Remarque?s liaison with Dietrich and the contents of Arc de Triomphe. In a diary entry
from 1941, for instance, Remarque notes: ?Gestern abend ungef?hre Grundidee zum:
Arc de Triomphe gefunden. ?hnelt verzweifelt einer Autobiographie der letzten Jahre, ?
emotionell?. Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 352. In his
written correspondence with Dietrich, Remarque also regularly uses the pseudonym,
Ravic and speaks of ?unserm Buch?. ?Sag mir, da? Du mich liebst? . . . , edited by Fuld
and Schneider, p. 181.
41. As with many of Remarque?s other characters, both Haake and the Nazi,
Steinbrenner, in Liebe Deinen N?chsten have phonetically harsh names which provoke
negative thought associations. As a result, the name Steinbrenner seems fitting for an
unpleasant and merciless Nazi. It is, therefore, a name which Remarque also uses for
Nazi-characters in Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben. Likewise, in
relation to Haake, the vocal connection to the noun ?Haken? is hardly coincidental.
Little imagination is needed to turn the name into a horrific object in the hands of a
torturous interrogator. In addition there is, of course, also an apposite link to the noun
?Hakenkreuz?. Another play on words in connection with character-names in Arc de
Triomphe is offered in the backstreet abortionist, Mme Boucher. Her operations are not
always successful; at times they even lead to the death of the patient. Hence, the
appropriateness of the name.
42. As Stephani points out, Joan?s character also contrasts with that of Kate Hegstr?m:
?So steht Kates Ruhe, Sicherheit und Eigenst?ndigkeit (z.B. f?hrt sie alleine nach
Florenz) in enormen Kontrast zu Joan?s Unbest?ndigkeit, Verantwortungslosigkeit und
Unselbstst?ndigkeit (z.B. f?hrt sie nur in m?nnlicher Begleitung weg). Diese stilistische
Kontrastierung arbeitet eine klare Kontur der jeweiligen Person heraus?. Stephani, ??. . .
Weil wir Funken in einem unbekannten Wind sind??, p. 52.
43. The staccato effect which dominates the narrative as Ravic realizes that he is losing
Joan, therefore also characterizes the passages revolving around Haake. To achieve this
effect, Remarque applies both asyndetic and grammatically incomplete sentence-
structures. Again, the subsequently increased pace comes to represent Ravic?s heartbeat;
this time, at the prospect of revenge and the fear that something should prevent it: ?Das
Gesicht, dieses Gesicht, es mu? eine ?hnlichkeit sein, irgendeine hundsgemeine,
verfluchte ?hnlichkeit, ein bl?der Trick, den meine Nerven mir spielen ? es kann nicht
in Paris sein, dieses Gesicht, es ist in Deutschland, es ist in Berlin, die Scheibe war
verregnet, man konnte nicht deutlich sehen, ich mu? mich geirrt haben, bestimmt . . .?
(Arc de Triomphe, p. 88). See also: pp. 88, 396, 400, 404). Whether stimulated by the
179
feeling of love or hatred, Ravic?s palpitating heart ? immitated through the pace ?
signifies that he is no longer ?ein Toter auf Urlaub? (Arc de Triomphe, pp. 176, 326).
44. Schreckenberger, ??Durchkommen ist alles?: Physischer und psychischer
Existenzkampf in Erich Maria Remarques Exil-Romanen?, p. 35.
45. ?Ich verspreche es dir, Kamerad. Es darf nie wieder geschehen? (Im Westen, p. 154).
46. ?Veber lachte?, ?Veber schmunzelte?, ?sein Gesicht leuchtete?. Similar phrases
interrupt the flow of his words, and they continue to characterize Veber?s mood until the
end of the novel, when he realizes that a war is inevitable (Arc de Triomphe, for
instance, pp. 21-22, 24, 137, 236).
47. Stephani, ??. . . Weil wir Funken in einem unbekannten Wind sind??, p. 50.
48. There are no lengthy deviations from Ravic?s perspective. The ones that do exist
mostly consist of brief statements. For instance: ??Du da oben?, sagte er [Ravic] gegen
das erleuchtete Fenster und lachte und wu?te nicht, da? er lachte? (Arc de Triomphe, p.
325). ??Du warst immer mit mir?, sagte er [Ravic] und merkte nicht, da? er pl?tzlich
deutsch sprach? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 471). In both quotations, the perspective exceeds
that of Ravic. On a few other occasions, the narrator assumes the third-person
perspective of one of the other characters: ?Kate Hegstr?m f?hlte die Melodie auf ihrer
Haut wie Quellwasser im April. Sie war pl?tzlich voller Echos, aber niemand war da,
der nach ihr rief. Verweilte Stimmen murmelten, vage Erinnerungsfetzen flatterten,
manchmal blinkte es wir Brokat, aber es verwirbelte, und niemand war da, der rief.
Niemand rief? (Arc de Triomphe, p. 101).
49. L?tgenhorst, ?Emigrant zweier Welten?.
50. The diary entry from 30 April 1941 testifies that Remarque consciously decided to
preserve distance between the characters in Liebe Deinen N?chsten and the reader.
?Wollte Kern u. Ruth als Dutzendmenschen durchgehen lassen.? Remarque, Das
unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 352.
51. Indeed, Talbot Jennings who was hired to write the film script aimed to remain
faithful to the novel, as far as the difference in media would allow. Horak has noted on
the final product: ?In der Tat weicht das Drehbuch, wie auch der von Cromwell
inszenierte Film in keinen wesentlichen Punkten von der Vorlage ab. Sogar die meisten
Dialoge scheinen w?rtlich aus dem Roman entnommen werden zu sein?. Horak, ?Ewig
auf der Flucht: Die Romanverfilmung So Ends Our Night?, pp. 239-40.
52. ?In daily life we never understand each other, neither complete clairvoyance nor
complete confessional exists. We know each other approximately, by external signs,
[?] [b]ut people in a novel can be understood completely by the reader, if the novelist
wishes; their inner as well as their outer life can be exposed.? Forster, Aspects of the
Novel, pp. 56-57.
53. C. R. Owen goes as far as referring to the film as a ?complete fiasco?. C. R. Owen,
Erich Maria Remarque: A Critical Bio-Bibliography (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1984), p.
248. Firda?s general study of Remarque summarizes the reception of the film and
180
contains a number of reviews. Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of
His Novels, pp. 137-38. Taylor examines the production and the less than positive
reception of the film. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and Film Biography,
pp. 178-180. See also: Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, pp. 331-32.
54. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 112.
55. Wagener comments on the reception of both works. Wagener, Understanding Erich
Maria Remarque, p. 59; Wagener, ?Remarque in Amerika ? zwischen Erfolg und
Exilbewu?tsein?, pp. 25-26; Hans Wagener, ?Erich Maria Remarque?, in Deutsche
Exilliteratur seit 1933, 1, part 1, edited by John M. Spalek and Joseph Strelka (Bern
etc.: Francke, 1976), pp. 591-605 (pp. 596-97). More detail and several reviews are
accessible in Sternburg?s study. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, pp. 301, 328-
31.
56. Werner Ilberg, ?Amerikas ?meistgekauftes? Buch: Bemerkungen zu Remarques ?Arc
de Triomphe??, T?gliche Rundschau (Berlin), 23 March 1949, no page.
181
                                            Chapter 4
          Der Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben
  Remarque has been described as a chronicler of the Twentieth Century
1
 and in his next
two novels he indeed proceeds to focus on the Second World War. Although
historically an obvious thematic progression from the exile theme, the development
should also be viewed in the light of Remarque?s realization that his sister had been
executed by the National Socialists in 1943.
2
 An essay on Der Funke Leben which he
produced in 1952-1953 suggests as much. Although narrated in the third person,
Remarque speaks of his own authorship:
Es war ein sehr schwieriges Buch zu schreiben, aber der
Autor f?hlte sich gezwungen, es zu schreiben. Viele seiner
Freunde und seine Familie waren Opfer der Nazis, und er
wollte seinen Teil dazu beitragen, da? dies nie wieder
geschehen k?nne.
3
  It is possible that Remarque felt somewhat contributory to Elfriede?s death, as Roland
Freisler, acting judge in the case at the People?s Court in Berlin, allegedly proclaimed at
the trial: ?Ihr Bruder ist uns leider entwischt, Sie aber werden uns nicht entwischen?.
4
Funke Leben was nevertheless supposedly intended to be ?weniger eine Anklage [?]
als eine Best?tigung des Lebenswillens und ein Triumpf des Geistes?.
5
Remarque was not the only author to take up the theme of the Second World War. The
names of Heinrich B?ll and G?nther Grass automatically spring to mind, as do those of
Theodor Plievier, Hans Werner Richter and Hans Helmut Kirst. However, Hermann
Lenz also needs mentioning in this context. Similarly to Remarque?s Zeit zu leben,
182
Lenz?s novel Neue Zeit raises the question of a wider guilt, including that of his
protagonist who takes refuge in ignorance and passivity.
6
German reviewers of Remarque?s Second World War novels generally criticize the
fact that Remarque did not personally experience life in Hitler?s Germany.
7
 In response,
however, Remarque noted ?da? ein Schriftsteller nicht einen Mord begangen haben
mu?, um einen Mord beschreben zu k?nnen?.
8
  Nevertheless, the Holocaust which forms the backdrop of Funke Leben has commonly
been described as ?indescribable?. On the basis of this claim, it is justifiable to assume
that it would be near impossible for those without first-hand experience of camp
imprisonment to produce an accurate account of this. However, it could equally be
argued that emotional detachment could prove beneficial when dealing with a sensitive
topic such as the Holocaust. Funke Leben is therefore one of the few fictional
concentration camp novels authored by an outsider.
9
 For this reason, and perhaps also
due to the literary prejudice lingering around Remarque?s name, Funke Leben rarely
finds its way into studies on holocaust literature. However, as with Bruno Apitz?s Nackt
unter W?lfen ? a fictionalized version of an authentic concentration camp story and a
novel which is seldom overlooked in studies of holocaust literature ? Funke Leben is
founded on authentic material. ?Es war notwendig, und ? leider ? existierte material
daf?r in erdr?ckenden Massen, ? es gab Photographien, Filme, B?cher, Tageb?cher und
Tausende Zeugen zu interviewen?.
10
 Remarque specifically mentions Eugen Kogon?s
report Der SS-Staat as one of his sources of information.
11
 Kogon?s detailed portrayal of
Buchenwald certainly testifies that even the most horrific episodes of Remarque?s novel
are realistic. Indeed, many of the particularly unpleasant incidents in Funke Leben also
feature in Kogon?s report. Moreover, when comparing Funke Leben with the numerous
183
autobiographical accounts produced by former camp prisoners, there are apparent links
in terms of both content and form.
12
  When Remarque nonetheless struggled, first of all, to get this novel published for the
German-speaking market, and then found it received with hostility when the book was
finally brought out by Kiepenheuer und Witsch, this must be viewed in the light of the
German nation?s general wish, at the time, to distance itself from its Nazi past.
13
 The
publication of the novel Nacht by Edgar Hilsenrath, also points to this being the case.
Depicting life in a Jewish ghetto in the Ukraine, Nacht proved too controversial for the
German readers and the publishing house, Kindler, decided in 1964 to withdraw the
book from the market.
14
 With succeeding generations, however, Germany came to
acknowledge its past. In fact, Nacht was re-published in 1978 and achieved sales figures
exceeding one hundred thousand copies. ?Als sei die Zeit erst sp?ter reif daf?r
gewesen.?
15
Ernestine Schlant proposes in The Language of Silence that following the war, the
larger part of the German population adopted an illusory self-perception in which they
saw themselves as victims. Pointing to the famous study from the 1960s by Alexander
and Margarete Mitscherlich, she further notes that this was essentially a psychological
defence mechanism which enabled the Germans to deny their own role as collaborators
or even as active persecutors during the National Socialist period.
16
 With this in mind, it
is not surprising that neither Funke Leben nor the ensuing novel Zeit zu leben in which
Remarque again places the responsibility of the atrocities with the German nation, were
well received in Germany. As with Remarque?s First World War novels, Funke Leben
and Zeit zu leben were, as it appears, evaluated on their political implications rather than
on their literary merits.
184
This tendency is illuminated also in the very different receptions which Remarque?s
1956 play, Der letzte Station, had in East- and West Germany respectively. In the West,
the mood of the critics was largely characterized by ?restiveness and grumbling?,
17
 a
reception which was presumably linked to the play?s ambiguous presentation of the Red
Army as brutal but nonetheless also as liberators. Due to the Cold War, this portrayal
was less than welcome in the West. In addition, the play insinuates that guilty
individuals, similar to the fictitious SS-Oberscharf?hrer Schmidt, might have evaded
prosecution and thus remained part also of post-war German society.
18
  Similarly to Apitz?s Nackt unter W?lfen, Funke Leben covers the last few months of
the war. It commences in March 1945, a fact which is communicated through indirect
time indicators such as: ?Guter Bohnenkaffee war selten im Fr?hjahr 1945? and ?[d]er
M?rznachmittag war milde? (Funke Leben, pp. 11, 13). The work concludes shortly
after American troops rescue the camp in late April or early May. The novel is mainly
set in Mellern Concentration Camp which, although modelled on Buchenwald, remains
a fabrication by Remarque.
19
  The nearby town, likewise named Mellern, has commonly been identified as
Osnabr?ck.
20
 However, despite many topographical likenesses, the town Mellern is not
identical with Remarque?s home town. Their geographical differentiation is
unambiguously stated in the novel?s specific naming of Osnabr?ck in a news report
about an attack by the Allied Forces: ?Dazu die Meldung, da? zwei Flieger ?ber der
Stadt, die H?lfte der andern ?ber Minden, Osnabr?ck und Hannover abgeschossen
worden seien [my emphasis]? (Funke Leben, p. 46). In this report, ?der Stadt? signifies
Mellern, and since Osnabr?ck is named as a separate geographical entity, the two towns
cannot be identical. Mellern town is therefore as fictional as the camp at its outskirts.
However, by juxtaposing it with real towns, Remarque conveys the approximate
185
geographical situation of his imaginary town and simultaneously suggests that Mellern
town is not unique. The implication is rather that the sentiment of the portrayed
population equally characterized that of other German towns at the time.
  The avoidance of an authentic setting as background for the plot allows Remarque a
much wider flexibility as to the substance of his work, without jeopardizing its
credibility. As a matter of fact, it is exactly the fictional nature of the work which
enables Remarque to adopt and rearrange selected incidents and facets of the
concentration camp everyday from authentic sources. In this manner, the individual
elements which together make up the contents of Funke Leben cannot be disputed,
although it invites the question as to what extent this selectiveness and reshuffling of
real events may distort the truth. Remarque addresses this possible subject for criticism
in advance in his initially intended introductory statement to Funke Leben.
21
 He first of
all emphasizes that Mellern is a fictitious camp, but he simultaneously defends the
validity of the plot by stressing, ?da? es existiert haben k?nnte?.
22
  Thus, although
Remarque manipulates the data and thereby arguably bends the truth to a certain extent,
his claim is not to deliver an accurate picture of a particular camp, but merely to remain
within the framework of realism.
  The fictitiousness of Funke Leben has another advantage. In relation to the narrative
perspective, it frees Remarque from the restrictions which would inevitably have
dictated the presentational angle, had the authorial aim been to portray a true-life
concentration camp. In such a case, Remarque would necessarily have been limited to
the perspective of his source of information.
  As in Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe, Remarque continues to write from
a third-person narrative perspective in Funke Leben. However, unprecedented in the two
previous works, Funke Leben displays confident employment of an omniscient narrator
186
through whom an array of views is rendered. Therefore, as opposed to autobiographical
concentration camp accounts, such as those written by Primo Levi, Wieslaw Kielar and
Eugen Kogon, Remarque presents a much wider view of the concentration camp
experience. It is thus not solely the prisoners? perspective which is depicted in Funke
Leben, but also that of members of the SS and that of the civilian population in the
nearby town.
  The third-person narrator in Funke Leben relates with omniscience regularly
throughout the work, but locally the viewpoint is characterized by varying degrees of
limitation in the form of focalization: Thus, at times the perspective is restricted to a
particular group of people, such as the inmates, the civilians or the camp staff. Mostly,
however, focalization occurs through a number of individual characters. Nonetheless, at
no point in the novel are any of the characters placed in prolonged and exclusive focus,
and the work therefore comes to contain several convincingly portrayed, ?round?
characters.
23
Before elaborating on the topic of the characters of Funke Leben and the techniques
Remarque utilizes in his presentation of them, the narrator?s position and visibility in
the work needs consideration. It can, after all, be argued that the third-person narrator is
the principal, although non-participating, character in the novel. In both Liebe Deinen
N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe the third-person narrators remain relatively
unnoticeable. In the former novel, the factual tone and the recurrent limitation to a
purely external perspective have a de-personifying effect on the narrative voice.
Likewise, in Arc de Triomphe, a multitude of techniques are introduced to draw the
attention away from the third-person narrator and to put focus on Ravic instead.
Juxtaposed with these two novels, the narrator of Funke Leben plays a more prominent
187
role. The narrative voice does not go unnoticed but regularly displays a firmly
subjective stance. This is the case, for instance, when the narrator uses heavy irony.
Beide waren in Baracke 22 gestorben und mittags im
Krematorium abgeliefert worden, Buchsbaum allerdings
nicht ganz vollst?ndig; drei Finger, siebzehn Z?hne und
ein Teil des Geschlechtsgliedes hatten gefehlt. Sie waren
ihm w?hrend seiner Erziehung zu einem brauchbaren
Menschen verlorengegangen. Die Sache mit dem
Geschlechtsglied war an den Kulturabenden in der SS-
Kaserne sehr belacht worden. [?] Einfach, wie alle
gro?en Einf?lle ? eine Einspritzung mit hochprozentiger
Salzs?ure, weiter nichts. Steinbrenner hatte sich damit
sofort Achtung unter den Kameraden verschafft [my
emphases] (Funke Leben, p. 13).
 In this excerpt the narrative is not focalized through one of the characters. However, the
narrator introduces the kind of euphemisms which are generally associated with
National Socialist terminology.
24
 However, because these are embedded in blunt and
realistic descriptions of the actions which the euphemisms are essentially meant to
conceal, the entire passage assumes an ironic and highly critical tone. The effect is
twofold. The reader not only realizes the physical and mental terror inflicted on
Buchsbaum, but also becomes aware of the degree of incongruity between the neutral
and misleading expressions which characterized the Nazi jargon, and the very different
realities these words covered.
  The above quotation is not the only incident of irony in Funke Leben. The technique
occurs regularly, and it unambiguously shows an anti-Nazi stand. Cutting irony or
sarcasm is, however, found only in the narrator?s personal statements. It features neither
in dialogue, nor when the narrative reflects the viewpoint of one or more of the
characters. Strong irony therefore becomes a trait associated only with the narrator, who
subsequently comes to have a distinguishable identity, almost in line with the actual
characters of the work. Although this study leans towards a structural approach and thus
188
largely ignores extra-textural factors, such as Remarque?s social and cultural
background, and the psychological climate under which his novels were written, the
clear biased stance of the narrator in Funke Leben also expresses Remarque?s own
indignation and outrage about the inhumanity which characterized the National Socialist
period. The ironic tone likewise characterizes other works about the Holocaust. It can be
found, for example, in Wieslaw Kielar?s autobiographical work, Anus Mundi: Five
Years in Auschwitz. In fact, the following excerpt from the work bears considerable
resemblance to the above quotation from Funke Leben:
The SS men were busy with the prisoners of war,
preoccupied with a fraction of the vanquished army, in
front of whose survivors they swaggered with their
superiority, and whom they maltreated in a sophisticated
way, in a way worthy of the knights with the SS insignia,
who were bravely fighting in a dangerous sector of the
front, the newly set-up, so-called prisoner-of-war labor
camp. Within the next few weeks these ?brave? SS men
achieved such outstanding ?success? with the Soviet
prisoners of war that they could no longer cope with the
incinerating of corpses in the crematorium [?].
25
  Despite the fact that the visibility of the narrator in Funke Leben markedly exceeds that
of Remarque?s previously employed third-person narrators, there are some common
properties in their manner of relating. The narrators of Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc
de Triomphe, for example, both utilize the effects of apparent objectivity. This
technique is also used in both Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben. Initially, this claim seems
to contradict the assertion, above, that the narrator in Funke Leben expresses a clearly
biased standpoint. However, a closer examination of the use of objectivity in Funke
Leben and Zeit zu leben shows that a neutral tone is applied to serve very different
purposes in the latter two novels. It also shows that apparent objectivity locally in Funke
189
Leben is not, as could perhaps be expected, irreconcilable with the otherwise clear
subjective stance the narrator displays elsewhere in the work.
  As proposed in the previous chapter, the factual tone in Liebe Deinen N?chsten (which
governs large parts of the work) assists in camouflaging the presence of a narrator. In
that novel, the purpose of the neutral voice is therefore specifically linked to the formal
element of narrative perspective. In Funke Leben however, matter-of-factness plays a
role in the novel?s aesthetic impact and its communication of a difficult topic. As
mentioned above, the Holocaust is widely deemed to be almost impossible to explain to
those who did not experience it firsthand. Nevertheless, the neutral tone locally in
Funke Leben, particularly in relation to the brutal treatment of the detainees, serves to
transcend the alleged limitations of language. In descriptions of the so called
indescribable, factuality can indeed be both more memorable and more convincing than
extensive use of adjectives, imagery or hyperbole. There is in fact the danger that the
subjective tone which generally accompanies the use of these tools could lead to the
narrative being interpreted as exaggerated and unrealistic. Comparisons to, for instance,
Dante?s Inferno or to hell do not necessarily convey well ? or credibly ? the camp
experience.
26
 Moreover, it can be argued that in the case of the Holocaust, there are no
sufficiently horrific pictures with which it can be compared. The impact of the depicted
concentration camp experience, when unknown to the reader, may therefore be impeded
rather than aided by the use of such imagery. Some authentic concentration camp
accounts therefore shun imagery and other subjectivizing narrative tools, and aim
instead to deliver a succinct and factual description of events.
27
 Paradoxically, the
omission of adorning elements can have a particularly poignant effect. In addition to
evoking the reader?s sympathy with the victims, the coldness of the neutral tone works
190
aesthetically as well as communicatively, in that it implies an emotional rigidity of both
the environment and the persecutors.
  As Pascal Nicklas discusses in his article The Disappearance of the Body: Pain and
the Representation of War, there is no satisfactory language by which it is possible to
express, unambiguously, degrees of pain.
28
 The same can be said for other sensations,
both physical and emotional. However, a sizable proportion of Holocaust accounts
revolves around sensations. Hunger, fear and exhaustion, which are all pain in one form
or another, are probably the most recurrent sensations depicted in concentration camp
material. Yet, Reiter notes in her study on Holocaust literature that torture, with its
combination of pain and humiliation, is one aspect central to the concentration camp
experience, which is commonly mentioned only in brief or even omitted in
autobiographical accounts. She proposes that ?victims felt ashamed to write of the abuse
to which they had been subjected?.
29
 However, it is equally likely that these people were
lost for words ? literally. Perhaps language simply proves inadequate and insufficient
when the topic is, not the sensation itself, but its intensity.
  In visual media, this void can be overcome by using, for example, a blank screen to
represent the feeling of, for instance, all-consuming pain.
30
 In literature, on the contrary,
where language constitutes the tool of communication, it is more difficult. In Funke
Leben, when it comes to depicting events where even a factual presentation would not
suffice to convey the experience, Remarque adopts a special narrative approach. In one
of Mellern?s bunkers, prisoners are confined in solitude, but intermittently these
individuals are tortured to varying degrees. A particular method of torture is related in
some detail: An inmate, L?bbe, has been chained to the central heating system; feet
slightly above the ground. He has consumed only salty foods and beverages for days.
The SS-man in charge, Breuer, prepares to continue the assault, when he is interrupted
191
by the sound of groaning from a neighbouring cell. With this, the perspective switches
temporarily to reveal only an audible version of events:
Er [Breuer] [?] schlo? die zweite Zelle auf und ging
hinein. Man h?rte ihn murmeln; dann kamen dumpfe
Ger?usche wie Tritte; dann Poltern, Klirren, Sto?en,
Schieben und pl?tzlich gellende Schreie, die langsam in
R?cheln ?bergingen. Noch ein paar dumpfe Aufschl?ge,
und Breuer erschien wieder. Sein rechter Stiefel war na?
(Funke Leben, p. 327).
  The impact of this restricted perspective lies in the fact that only the imagination of the
reader sets the limits as to what the torture encompasses. As a result, there are no
boundaries for the horror which the prisoners may be subjected to. Of course, this does
not communicate the actual level of pain the victim experiences. Yet, the ?gellende
Schreie? which gradually give way to a mere ?r?cheln? indicate, in the most basic
language, the suffering of the prisoner. Simultaneously, this limited perspective shows
the mental torture which the detainees in the other cells are subjected to. They too have
only their imagination from which to form a picture of the treatment their fellow
inmates are undergoing, and they will simply have to wait to realize, from personal
experience, the nature of the torture methods used by Breuer. The audible perspective
not only exemplifies the psychological abuse inflicted on the prisoners; in view of
narrative strategies, it also reveals an effective manner of evading both unpleasant
descriptions and the proposed limitations of language.
  As mentioned above, the fictitiousness of Remarque?s concentration camp novel
allows the author to explore the concentration camp experience from different angles:
that of the inmates, that of the camp authorities and that of the citizens in the nearby
town. Although authentic accounts perhaps create a more profound impression on the
reader than a piece of fiction, the latter does have some advantages. By offering insight,
192
not merely into the minds of the victims, but also into that of the persecutors, the fears
and sufferings experienced by the inmates are shown to be justified. The camp staff is
proven, through direct observation of their thoughts and beliefs, to be as indoctrinated
and as indifferent to the sufferings of their detainees, as the latter would claim. In an
authentic account, the reader has no such irrefutable proof, but must judge solely on the
perception and interpretation of the author, who tends to be one of the victims.
  As has been established, Funke Leben does not focus only on one individual or one
group, but relates from a multitude of perspectives. As a tool for character development,
Remarque uses focalization as well as erlebte Rede. The latter is particularly applied
prolifically in Funke Leben, and despite the fact that the narrator distributes his attention
amongst the characters, two of them, the Obersturmbannf?hrer Neubauer and the
prisoner known merely as 509, form the core of the plot and therefore deserve specific
notice. Each in his own way, these two characters occupy significant positions within
the camp. As the official head of the concentration camp, Neubauer?s status and
influence is self-evident. The power of 509, on the other hand, is less definable. It
begins to develop when he defies the camp authorities by refusing to volunteer for
medical experimentation. Through circumstances he escapes execution and, as a result,
becomes a symbol to his fellow prisoners of hope and of successful defiance of the
oppressive system.
31
  Although they are both powerful figures within the camp, Neubauer and 509 constitute
opposites. Since they play equally central roles in the novel, the extreme contrast
between their lives, their beliefs and their general characteristics create an aesthetic
balance, not dissimilar to that of Joan and Haake in Arc de Triomphe.
  Neubauer?s character resembles perhaps too well the standard caricature of a Nazi and
this is indeed a point on which Funke Leben has received some criticism.
32
 He is an
193
uneducated man, whose social status has risen enormously under National Socialist rule,
and who as a result will defend it zealously. He deludes himself into believing that his
actions of exploitation and cruelty are justifiable, because they are not in breach with
the attitude of the regime, and when his carefully repressed conscience occasionally
stirs, he shuns all responsibility by hiding behind excuses and empty rhetoric. The
recurrent tension between Neubauer and his conscience, displayed to the reader in the
form of erlebte Rede, gives his character both depth and credibility. Thus, although he
does indeed embody the archetypical Nazi, the actual manner of depiction through
erlebte Rede and focalization is effective. Moreover, to Remarque?s defence the
characteristics of the novel?s other Nazis differ from those of Neubauer.
  Despite considerable focus on Neubauer, the central character in Funke Leben is that
of the prisoner known as 509. There appears to be no particular meaning attached to
exactly this number, and its significance should thus be sought in its arbitrariness. The
main quality of the number 509 is precisely that it is not striking. There is nothing
extraordinary about this particular inmate, and that the novel could equally have
focussed on any other prisoner.
33
 In line with Remarque?s work in general, the
protagonist of Funke Leben therefore functions as a representative figure of a much
wider group of victims; a role which is conveyed, for instance, through the impersonal
reference to this character purely by his inconspicuous prisoner number.
34
  The reading process would presumably become somewhat confusing if a considerable
number of characters was identified and distinguished only by numbers. In fact, aside
from 509 and the brief appearance of inmate number 7105, the other prisoners in Funke
Leben are all (nick-)named. When 509, however, is mentioned only by number, this is
partly due to his representative role, but it also serves to convey the non-human state to
which this character has degenerated as a result of the conditions in the camp. It might
194
indeed be for the same purpose that the blurb of Kielar?s Auschwitz novel bears the
headline: ?Prisoner 290?.
35
 Kielar further explains on the matter:
After we had been divided into small groups, we were led
into the basement where all our personal belongings were
taken away; this included the removal of hair from every
part of our body, followed by a bath in ice-cold water. We
were handed a cardboard tab with a number which was to
replace our names from now on. My number was 290,
Romek Trojanowski?s 44, and Edek Galinski?s 537. Thus,
in a perfectly simple manner, we became numbers.
36
  The impersonal reference is but one of the techniques which Remarque utilizes to
convey 509?s poor physical and mental condition. The novel?s opening paragraph
displays a number of other methods used to communicate unambiguously his
deterioration:
Das Skelett 509 hob langsam den Sch?del und ?ffnete die
Augen. Es wu?te nicht, ob es ohnm?chtig gewesen war
oder nur geschlafen hatte. Zwischen dem einen und dem
andern bestand auch kaum noch ein Unterschied; Hunger
und Ersch?pfung hatten seit langem daf?r gesorgt. Beides
war jedesmal ein Versinken in moorige Tiefen, aus denen
es kein Auftauchen mehr zu geben schien. 509 lag eine
Weile still und horchte. Das war eine alte Lagerregel; man
wu?te nie, von welcher Seite Gefahr drohte, und solange
man sich unbeweglich hielt, hatte man immer die Chance,
?bersehen oder f?r tot gehalten zu werden ? ein einfaches
Gesetz der Natur, das jeder K?fer kennt [my emphases]
(Funke Leben, p. 11).
  The entire passage presents 509 as existing in an unnatural sphere between life and
death. He is depicted not as a human being, but as a ghostly creature posing in the form
of a skeleton.
37
 He is not named, but is referred to simply by number. In addition,
vocabulary is used which is generally associated with death. When raising his head
195
from the ground, the word ?Sch?del? is used rather than the more obvious option of
?Kopf?. The ethereal image is supported by a careful use of personal pronouns. The
second sentence thus reads: ?Es wu?te nicht, ob es unm?chtig gewesen war [?][my
emphases]?. Although ?es? is grammatically the correct pronoun for the noun ?das
Skelett?, it endorses the impression of 509 being non-human. Richard Kirn also points
to this aspect in his review from 1952: ?Man ist nur noch ?es?, kein Mensch mehr oder
doch nur der Schatten eines Menschen?.
38
 In the latter half of the same passage the
impersonal and generalizing pronoun ?man? is used. As a result, no specific
confirmation of 509?s human identity (or gender) is given. Naturally, the direct
reference to the setting as a ?Lager? aids the reader in turning the initially abhorrent
picture of a skeletal creature into an image of a pitiable, emaciated human being. 509 is
however only really humanized in the novel?s second paragraph in which his character
is finally referred to as ?er?.
  The opening paragraph hence depicts the camp as a place of hunger, despair,
dehumanization and death. Although a mere vernacular term of phrase, 509 pinpoints
his own and the other prisoners? low status by figuratively parallelizing prisoners and
bugs: ?[E]in einfaches Gesetz der Natur, das jeder K?fer kennt [my emphasis]?. In
expressing his situation as a law of nature, 509 reveals his resignation to the situation.
In fact, at the beginning of the novel, 509 is not dissimilar to the socalled Musilm?nner
or Mussulmen in the camp: He is physically and psychologically exhausted and is
essentially waiting to die.
Was au?erhalb des Stacheldrahtes geschah, ging ihn
nichts an. [?] Er lag in der Bodensenkung wie in einem
Grab [?]. [E]r w?rde hier liegenbleiben und sterben,
endlich ?bermannt von der letzten Schw?che, gegen die er
so lange gek?mpft hatte. Er versuchte sich zu wehren,
aber es half wenig; er sp?rte es nur noch st?rker, ein
196
sonderbar ergebenes Warten, das sich in ihm ausbreitete,
in ihm und ?ber ihn hinaus, als warte pl?tzlich alles ?
warte die Stadt, als warte die Luft, als warte selbst das
Licht. Es war wie bei einer beginnenden Sonnenfinsternis,
wenn die Farben schon den Hauch von Blei haben und die
ferne Ahnung einer sonnenlosen, toten Welt ? ein
Vakuum, ein Warten ohne Atem, ob der Tod noch einmal
vor?bergehen w?rde oder nicht [my emphases] (Funke
Leben, 16).
  The simile ?wie in einem Grab? confirms the extent of 509?s resignation.
Simultaneously, time is brought almost to a halt through the reiteration of both the verb-
and noun-form of ?warten?. 509 is waiting and so is the reader. In terms of literary
effect, the stagnated pace builds up anticipation that something significant is about to
occur. This turn of events is constituted by an air raid on Mellern town, which proves to
have a vital impact on 509 in that he regains his will to live. His switch from lethargic
acceptance to wishing to persevere is mirrored in a change in the vocabulary. The above
passage thus repeatedly points to the passive state of waiting by reiterating the different
forms of the word ?warten?. The bombing of the town, however, prompts physical and
mental activity in 509. This is conveyed, for instance, through the repetition of the
active word of ?Ruck?. Moreover, Remarque applies it in both its literal and figurative
sense, and thereby adds an aesthetically pleasing detail to the passage:
Er war pl?tzlich ganz wach. Die Todesm?digkeit war wie
Rauch in einem Wirbelwind verflogen. Jeder Ruck aus
dem Boden wurde zu einem Ruck in seinem Gehirn. Eine
Zeitlang lag er noch still ? dann, fast ohne zu merken, was
er tat, schob er behutsam eine Hand vorw?rts und hob den
Mantel von seinem Gesicht so weit hoch, da? er darunter
hinweg zur Stadt hinabsp?hen konnte (Funke Leben, p.
17). [?] Da lag die Stadt und brannte. Da waren Qualm
und Zerst?rung, und es ging ihn doch etwas an. [?] Er
wollte nicht sterben! Jetzt nicht! Jetzt nicht mehr [my
emphases]! (Funke Leben, p. 21).
197
Hope has been rekindled. The incipient reawakening of 509?s defiance and will to live
is illustrated also by a switch in the proportions of dialogue and narrative in the first few
chapters. At the opening of the novel, 509 shows only indifference towards his
surroundings. He is lying on the ground outside one of the prisoner blocks. Chapter one
stresses his state of resignation and isolation both physically and mentally, by being
entirely devoid of dialogue.  However, following the bombing, chapter two sees 509
returning to the prisoners? living quarters where he, confused but also excited about the
attack, initiates conversation with the other inmates. Although 509?s initial state of
resignation and detachment is the product of ten years imprisonment, it also functions as
a means of self-protection. All his energy is directed at survival, and unnecessary
emotions have to be resisted as they could prove fatally draining. Only half way through
the novel, when German defeat is no longer questionable even to the inmates, 509
finally permits himself to voice his real name and thereby to abandon an important part
of the protective shell which his withdrawn state has constituted.
Sogar seinen Namen hatte er nicht mehr h?ren wollen. Er
war kein Mensch mehr gewesen, und er hatte es nicht
mehr sein wollen; es h?tte ihn zerbrochen. Er war eine
Nummer geworden und hatte sich nur noch als Nummer
genannt und nennen lassen. [?] Neben der T?r hockte
jemand. ?509!? fl?sterte er. Es war Rosen. 509 schrak auf,
als erwache er aus einem endlosen, schweren Traum. Er
blickte hinunter. ?Ich hei?e Koller?, sagte er abwesend.
?Friedrich Koller? (Funke Leben, p. 207).
  This self-acknowledgement of his true identity marks an important stage in the
psychological development of 509. It shows how the initial spark of hope which the air
raid of Mellern town produced has flared up and produced will to live. It is this decisive
will, which the title Der Funke Leben refers to.
198
  The title signifies the inner strength which enables life and humanness to persevere in
the individual; even when this person exists under inconceivable circumstances. It is
this ?Funke? which comes to distinguish 509 from the Mussulmen of the concentration
camp.
39
 ?[Die Musilm?nner] bewegten sich wie Automaten und hatten keinen eigenen
Willen mehr; alles war in ihnen ausgel?scht [?] [my emphasis]? (Funke Leben, p. 65).
The verb ?ausl?schen? is especially apposite in context of the novel title. The hope of
the Mussulmen has in figurative terms been extinguished like flames, and they no
longer possess the spark of life.
  In many of Remarque?s novels, the title (or the concept it deals with) reappears in
more or less disguised form in the course of the work. In Im Westen, for example, the
expression ?nichts Neues? is alluded to on several occasions. Der Weg and Arc de
Triomphe likewise have obvious ties between their titles and narratives. These works
therefore exemplify the careful consideration which Remarque pays to creating such
ties. In Funke Leben too, the word ?Funke? features on a number of occasions;
40
generally referring to that ?spark? of hope and will to survive which distinguishes for
instance 509 from the Musilm?nner.
41
  In this context, one particular episode warrants attention as it applies the noun ?der
Funke? literally and metaphorically. One of the inmates, Lohmann, is dying. He has
extracted his only gold tooth, to avoid it falling into the hands of the Nazis. During the
night, 509 and another prisoner, Berger, strike one of their few matches to examine the
tooth and the extraction wound:
[509] f?hlte die Hitze der Flamme an seinen Fingern, aber
er hielt sie, bis er nicht mehr konnte. Er h?rte Berger
zur?ckkommen. Dann war die Dunkelheit pl?tzlich da, als
sei er blind geworden. ?Hast du noch ein Streichholz??
fragte er den Mann im mittleren Bett. ?Hier.? Der Mann
gab ihm eins. ?Das letzte.? Das letzte, dachte 509.
199
F?nfzehn Sekunden f?r die f?nfundvierzig Jahre, die noch
Lohmann hie?en. Die letzten. Der kleine flackernde Kreis.
[?] Die Flamme sengte seine Finger. Ein Schatten von
der Seite schlug nach seinem Arm. Das Licht erlosch.
?Gute Nacht, Lohmann?, sagte 509. [?] Lohmann
erwiderte nichts mehr (Funke Leben, pp. 61-62).
  The distinctive parallel between the tiny flame of the match and the life of Lohmann
adds aesthetic weight to the passage. As if bound together, Lohmann dies as the match
extinguishes. The flame from the match ? small against the darkness of the night ?
serves as a symbol of each of the prisoners in the camp. Living in the dark era of
German history, each individual ?flame? or ?spark of life? is threatened and stands
insignificantly against the wider background of the regime.
  Considering the novel?s setting, it is not surprising that the themes of death and
humiliation dominate the work. In the concentration camps of the Third Reich, the
Nazis? attempt to dehumanize the prisoners worked at two levels. It partly functioned to
crush the spirits of the inmates, but it also served to alleviate any doubts the camp staff
experienced in regards to the morality of their own and the regime?s activities. Both of
these effects of dehumanization are demonstrated in Funke Leben.
  The prisoners? alienation from their human identity is expressed directly: ?Die
H?ftlinge standen nackt da; jeder einzelne war ein Mensch; aber das hatten sie schon
fast vergessen [my emphasis]?(Funke Leben, p. 161). The statement ?jeder einzelne war
ein Mensch? is characteristically Remarquean. It might equally have read: ?Sie waren
alle Menschen?. The meaning would not have been vastly different. Yet, Remarque?s
specific reference to the individual holds an added implication which pinpoints the core
of his general narrative strategies. Even in a depiction of a group of prisoners,
Remarque focuses on a single victim and thereby indirectly reminds the reader that
although the prisoners in their numerousness appear as a relatively uniform and
200
impersonal mass, each one of them is a human being; or, to use 509?s phrase: ?ein St?ck
Mensch? (Funke Leben, p. 137).
This concept, however, is foreign to the Lagerkommandant Neubauer:
Er [Neubauer] war durch viele Jahre ohne Kritik daran
gew?hnt, das, was er selbst glauben wollte, als Tatsache
anzusehen. Deshalb erwartete er auch jetzt, da? die
Gefangenen ihn so sahen, wie er es wollte: Als einen
Mann, der unter schwierigen Umst?nden sein Bestes f?r
sie tat. Da? sie Menschen waren, wu?te er [Neubauer]
l?ngst nicht mehr [my emphasis] (Funke Leben, p. 317).
  Whereas the previous quotation spoke of the prisoners in terms of ?jeder einzelne?, the
narrator now adopts a more detached and impersonal tone. There is no regard for, or
mention of, the individual. Instead, the inmates are presented as a group of ?Menschen?.
?Menschen?, of course, is what Neubauer does not perceive the inmates to be. In his and
many of the other Nazis? view they are merely animals. In an attempt to convey the
concept of the ?Untermensch?, Remarque incorporates animal comparisons in a number
of ways. This is most commonly found in the language of the SS and the Kapos.
42
 Their
address of the prisoners consists of cursing, often intermingled with either the words
?Hund? or ?Schwein?: ?La? deine Schweinesprache, Idiot!? (Funke Leben, p. 37);
?verdammte Saubande!? (Funke Leben, p. 50); ?Lausehund? (Funke Leben, p. 92);
?Schweinehund? (Funke Leben, p. 155). These examples convey the abuse and
dehumanizing treatment to which the prisoners are subjected.
  The continuous parallelizing between the inmates and animals is also found in the
novel?s imagery and, notably, in its similes. There are particularly many comparisons to
insects, which again stresses the perceived insignificance of the inmates. Although the
imagery is mostly found in passages of straight narrative, this should not be interpreted
as the narrator?s perception of the prisoners as inferior beings. Describing the detainees
201
in their striped uniforms as they attempt to carry out orders by the SS to run, jump and
crawl, the narrator states: ?Sie lernten auf diese Weise die Erde des Tanzplatzes
schmerzlich genau kennen. Nach kurzer Zeit war der Platz ein Durcheinander von
wimmelnden riesigen gestreiften Maden, die wenig Menschliches an sich zu haben
schienen? (Funke Leben, pp. 55-56). Despite the fact that the image of a sea of maggots
evokes revulsion, the revulsion is not aimed at the suffering prisoners, but is guided
towards the camp staff and the brutality of the system aiming to reduce people to pitiful
creatures.
43
Another recurrent animal-image used to describe the inmates is that of a bird or birds.
At one level, these comparisons serve to create, in the reader, clear and memorable,
inner, visual impressions: ?Ihre H?nde hingen wie Vogelkrallen am Stacheldraht?
(Funke Leben, pp. 89-90); ?Sie kr?chzten und keuchten und zirpten wie verwundete
V?gel? (Funke Leben, p. 157); ?Auf allen Seiten erhoben sich H?ftlinge wie ver?ngstigte
V?gel. Die flatterten mit den Armen und taumelten ziellos umher? (Funke Leben, p.
346). In addition, a transport from another camp is described as ?eine Horde gro?er,
m?der V?gel, die nicht mehr fliegen konnten? (Funke Leben, p. 255). These
comparisons, however, also function at a symbolic level. The bird is commonly
associated with the concept of freedom as is stated, for instance, in the idiom of being
?free as a bird?.
44
 The similes above thus not only induce memorable, mental pictures of
emaciated and helpless human beings; by likening them to birds, their loss of autonomy
is doubly stressed and somewhat sentimentalized. The aim of the adoption of the bird-
imagery is thus also to appeal to the sentiment of the reader.
  Indeed, a similar comparison is found in the earlier work of Liebe Deinen N?chsten.
Fleeing from National Socialism, a small group of Jews find themselves isolated and
helpless in France. They have no knowledge of the language and being incapable of
202
verbally interacting with their surroundings, they rapidly deteriorate to a seemingly sub-
human state. Kern and a fellow exile encounter the Jews outside an administrative office
for refugees:
[S]ie wurden aufgehalten durch eine Schar armselige
Juden, die wie ein Schwarm zerzauster, hungriger Dohlen
sie umkreiste. ?Bitt?h ? helfen . . .? Der ?lteste trat vor
mit weiten, fallenden, dem?tigen Bewegungen. ?Wir nicht
sprechen franz?sisch ? hel ? fen ? bitte Mensch ? Mensch
. . .? ?Mensch ? Mensch . . .?, fielen die andern im Chor
ein und flatterten mit ihren weiten ?rmeln. ?Mensch ?
Mensch . . .? Es schien fast das einzige Wort Deutsch zu
sein, das sie kannten, denn sie wiederholten es
ununterbrochen [...] und nur die ?lteste f?gte hinzu: ?. . .
auch ? Mensch. . .? (Liebe Deinen N?chsten, p. 249).
In Funke Leben, a man from a human transport which has temporarily stopped in
Mellern but is destined for an extermination camp seeks the help of 509 and his fellow
prisoners. His plea is almost identical to that of the Jews, above: ??Verstecken ? Mensch
? Mensch ? ? Er wiederholte es immer wieder und stie? sich mit dem Zeigefinger vor
die Brust. Es war das einzige Deutsch, das er kannte? (Funke Leben, p. 266). By forcing
this anonymous character to verbally confirm his humanness, Remarque emphasizes the
fact that every prisoner, even if remaining unnamed, is an individual with a right to life.
In the context, Remarque explains in an interview:
When I saw five million died ? the figure is a blank. Five
million deaths does [sic] not equal one death. Five
thousand dead in a concentration camp ? there is that
same difficulty. The figure is blank. But if I say five died,
then perhaps. And if I say one died ? a man I have made
you know and understand ? he lived so, this is what he
thought, this is what he hoped, this was his faith, these
were his difficulties, these his triumphs and then he ? in
this manner, on this day, at an hour when it rained and the
room was stuffy ? was killed, after torture, then perhaps I
have told you something that you should know about the
Nazis.
45
203
  In Funke Leben, the bird-image recurs also on other occasions and with different
symbolic meanings. Following an air raid, Neubauer discovers that the fashion firm
which he has bought from a Jewish business man for a fraction of its value has been
severely damaged. As the building combusts, Neubauer hurries to save a roll of fabric
from the reach of the flames. However, he desists as further action proves too
dangerous: ?W?tend starrte er auf den Ballen zu seinen F??en, den er gerettet hatte; es
war ein hellblauer Stoff, in den fliegende V?gel gedruckt waren? (Funke Leben, p. 239).
The birds on the textile symbolize, in context, the prosperity and carefree existence
which Neubauer has enjoyed under Hitler?s rule. However, the regime is crumbling and,
subsequently, so is Neubauer?s social status. In anger, Neubauer throws the roll in the
fire, and as the blue material with the flying birds perishes, as does the untroubled and
comfortable lifestyle which the business and the regime have thus far enabled him to
lead.
  One further figurative use of the bird-image is found in Funke Leben. It revolves
around two prisoners, Josef Bucher and Ruth Holland.
46
 Conversing through the fence
separating the women?s and the men?s camps, they become aware of birdsong. ??Wo
singt sie?? ?Dr?ben. Dort, wo die B?ume stehen.? Ruth Holland starrte durch den
Stacheldraht zu dem hin?ber, was dr?ben war: einer Wiese, ?ckern, ein paar B?umen,
einem Bauernhaus mit einem Strohdach und, ferner, auf einem H?gel, einem wie?en,
niedrigen Hause mit einem Garten? (Funke Leben, p. 200). The bird is outside the
confinement of the camp and, together with the surrounding peaceful landscape,
represents freedom. Whilst Ruth and Bucher are able to discern the peaceful landscape
visually and audibly, the life it reflects is beyond their reach. The song of the bird is
therefore ?sehr s?? und unertr?glich? (Funke Leben, p. 201). They then discuss what
204
might become of them should they live to witness the liberation of the camp. Although
German defeat has become a certainty, they recognize their own fragility and the fact
that they might not endure the final stage of camp existence. The image of the bird is
again applied to illustrate this:
Sie sahen den Vogel erst, als er dicht heran war. Sie sahen
einen kleinen schwarzen Ball mit Fl?geln. Sie sahen ihn
vor dem m?chtigen Himmel, er flog hoch und kam dann
pl?tzlich herunter, sie sahen ihn, und sie wollten beide
etwas tun und taten es nicht, einen Augenblick, gerade
bevor er sich dem Boden n?herte, war die ganze
Silhouette da, der kleine Kopf mit dem gelben Schnabel,
die ausgebreiteten Fl?gel und die runde Brust mit den
Melodien, und dann kam das leichte Krackeln und der
Funke aus dem elektrisch geladenene Verhau, sehr klein
und bla? und t?dlich vor dem Sonnenuntergang, und es
war nichts mehr da als ein verkohlter Rest mit einem
herabh?ngenden kleinen Fu? auf dem untersten Draht und
einem Fetzen Fl?gel, der den Boden gestreift und den Tod
herangeweht hatte (Funke Leben, p. 202).
  The sudden extinction of the bird and the freedom it represented show, figuratively,
the plight of Ruth, Bucher and the other prisoners.
  In Funke Leben, one of the central leitmotifs ? that of a white house ? serves to show
that the damage and pain inflicted on the prisoners of the concentration camp are not
healed with their liberation. Whilst waiting for the Americans to reach Mellern, Bucher
and Ruth seek comfort from the sight of a white house in the distance, beyond the
confinement of the camp:
Bucher blickte zu dem wei?en Haus auf dem H?gel
jenseits des Lagers hin?ber. Es stand in der schr?gen
Sonne zwischen den B?umen und schien unversehrt. [?]
?Glaubst du [Ruth] es jetzt endlich?? fragte er. ?Du kannst
ihre Kanonen h?ren. Sie kommen jede Stunde n?her. Wir
kommen heraus.?
205
Er sah wieder auf das wei?e Haus. Es war sein
Aberglaube, da?, solange es heil war, alles gut gehen
w?rde. Ruth und er w?rden am Leben bleiben und gerettet
werden (Funke Leben, p. 303).    
  The white house is mentioned several times in the course of the novel. It comes to
represent freedom to Ruth and Bucher and it fuels their hopes for the future. The white
colour is thus not coincidental, as it signifies goodness and peace. However, following
liberation as they leave the camp and approach the house, reality proves to differ from
their expectations:
Der Garten bl?hte; aber als sie an das wei?e Haus
herankamen, sahen sie, da? hinter ihm eine Bombe
eingeschlagen war. Sie hatte den ganzen hinteren Teil
zerst?rt; es war nur die Fassade, die unbesch?digt
geblieben war. Sogar die geschnitzte Eingangst?r war
noch da. Sie ?ffneten sie; aber sie f?hrte auf einen
Schutthaufen. ?Es war nie ein Haus. All die Zeit? (Funke
Leben, p. 371).
  The white house has been a mere illusion and, as Taylor suggests, ?perhaps their [Ruth
and Bucher?s] love would also prove to be an illusion?.
47
 Ruth and Bucher admittedly
appear to be relatively unscathed: they are alive. Wagener even suggests that Funke
Leben is one of the rare Remarque novels that offer an ?optimistic ending?.
48
  However,
National Socialism has severely disrupted and altered their existences. The only
?optimistic? aspect of Funke Leben is therefore the actual release of the prisoners. These
are drained physically and emotionally, and are at the end of the novel faced with the
immense task of rebuilding their lives. Despite Ruth and Bucher?s regained freedom,
the novel?s conclusion can thus hardly be termed ?optimistic?.
  In his next novel, Zeit zu leben, Remarque continues the theme of The Second World
War. However, whereas Funke Leben concentrates on the conditions within a
206
concentration camp, the succeeding work depicts the war as experienced by a young
soldier in the Wehrmacht, Ernst Graeber. Hence, Zeit zu leben shows the war from an
angle entirely different from that presented in Funke Leben. Yet, although Graeber as a
soldier on the Eastern Front plays an active role in the safeguarding of National
Socialist rule, the central plot revolves around his gradual alienation from this regime
and his re-evaluation of the notion of implication and guilt. Despite the fact that the
prisoner 509 and the soldier Graeber represent opposing sides, they are therefore
paradoxically both victims of the same regime.
  As with Funke Leben, Zeit zu leben is narrated in the third person. With only few
exceptions, the viewpoint is focalized through the protagonist, Ernst Graeber. Remarque
appears to have sought inspiration from the narrative strategies he applied in Arc de
Triomphe in which he likewise presented a single viewpoint from a third-person
perspective. As shall be evident from the analysis, below, many of the narrative tools
which are utilized in Arc de Triomphe to create the impression that the viewpoint is that
of Ravic recur in Zeit zu leben.
 As in the exile novel, the most conspicuous technique is the use of verbs which are
linked to the conscious mind or the senses. These include the verbs sagen, denken,
?berlegen, erwarten, beschlie?en, f?hlen and sp?ren, sehen. By applying these verbs in
conjunction with Graeber?s name, the narrative reads as reflecting his perspective. In the
previous chapter it was shown that the perspective of an entire passage might be
affected if a passage is introduced or intersected by a short sentence incorporating one
of the above verbs. In Zeit zu leben, it is applied, for example, when a Russian woman
suspected of being a partisan is to be executed: ?Graeber sah die Frau an. Sie stand
ruhig in ihrem roten Rock vor dem Grabe. Sie war kr?ftig und jung und gesund und
gemacht, Kinder zu geb?ren [my emphasis]? (Zeit zu leben, p. 25). The underlined
207
statement puts focus on Graeber and his visual sense. The subsequent description of the
woman thereby comes to reflect his view, rather than that of the third-person narrator.
  Despite recurrent use of the narrative tool explained above, there are also descriptive
passages in Zeit zu leben, in which neither Graeber?s consciousness nor his senses are
referred to. Instead, the author commences these passages by confirming Graeber?s
presence at the given location. The following example illustrates this:
Er ging den Weg durch das Dorf zur?ck. Man hatte
Planken und Bretter ?ber die Wege geworfen, um
Verbindungen ?ber den schmelzenden Schnee zu
schaffen. Die Planken bewegten sich, w?hrend er dar?ber
stapfte, und es war leicht abzurutschen; nichts war mehr
fest darunter. Er kam an der Kirche vorbei. Sie war klein
und zerschossen, und der Leutnant Reicke lag darin. Die
T?r stand offen [my emphases] (Zeit zu leben, p. 36).
  The underlined statements confirm Graeber?s presence. The narrator could essentially
have described both the muddy street and the contents of the church, but by placing
Graeber at these locations, the entire passage comes to reflect his perspective. The door
of the church is thus not closed, as this would make Graeber unable to look inside.
Graeber?s perspective is furthermore conveyed through use of erlebte Rede. The
following example shows how a passage from the novel first introduces Graeber?s
perspective by use of a verb relating to his senses; in this case ?sehen?. Moreover, the
narrative then switches to reflect Graeber?s erlebte Rede; bringing immediateness to the
passage: ??ber das Visier sah Graeber den Russen. Es war der Alte mit dem Bart und
den blauen Augen. Das Visier schnitt das Gesicht entzwei. Graeber senkte es. Er hatte
das letztemal jemand dem Unterkiefer weggeschossen. Die Brust war sichere? [my
emphases] (Zeit zu leben, p. 27).
208
  As in the case of Ravic in Arc de Triomphe, sentence structures have equally been
manipulated to simulate the thoughts of Graeber. Grammatically incomplete clauses and
sentences cause the narrative to resemble the erratic manner in which thoughts generally
occur.
Graeber stapfte den Weg um das Dorf herum. [Hence, the
focus is on Graeber and the passage reads as reflecting his
perspective]. Der Sommer 1940 in Frankreich. Der
Spaziergang nach Paris. Das Geheul der Stukas ?ber
einem fassungslosen Land. Stra?en, verstopft mit
Fl?chtigen und einer zerfallenden Armee. Der hohe Juni,
Felder, W?lder, der Marsch durch eine unzerst?rte
Landschaft, und dann die Stadt mit dem silbernen Licht,
den Stra?en, den Caf?s, die sich ?ffnete ohne einen Schu?.
Hatte er damals gedacht? War er beunruhigt gewesen?
Nein (Zeit zu leben, p. 33).
  The lack of predicates is especially effective when simulating thoughts. Detached,
individual images are conjured up: the march, the noise, the streets.
  Remarque occasionally applies the pluperfect when the perspective would otherwise
exceed that of Graeber. On guard duty, Graeber and his comrade Schneider decide to
take different routes around the village in which they are encamped. Suddenly Graeber
hears shots, but before he can locate Schneider, he encounters another soldier,
Steinbrenner. The latter exclaims: ??Die Schweine! Sie haben Schneider erwischt.
Durch den Kopf!?? The narrative voice continues: ?Es waren Partisanen gewesen. Sie
hatten sich im Nebel herangeschlichen. Schneiders roter Bart war anscheinend ein
unfehlbares Ziel gewesen. Sie hatten wohl erwartet, die Kompanie schlafend zu finden
[my emphases]? (Zeit zu leben, p. 57). Graeber has not witnessed Schneider?s killing,
but the pluperfect tense transforms the narrative to resemble a short recap presumably of
Steinbrenner?s explanation. This ensures that the perspective remains within Graeber?s
scope of knowledge. The inclusion of the particles ?anscheinend? and ?wohl? indicates
209
conjecture and therefore further shows that the above explanation of events is seen from
Graeber?s point-of-view, following his encounter with Steinbrenner.
  As stated above, the narrative perspective in Zeit zu leben is almost exclusively that of
Graeber. However, in the novel?s two opening chapters ? set on the Eastern Front ? the
reader gains temporary access to the minds of Steinbrenner and Muecke. Yet, as the
work progresses, the attention becomes increasingly focussed on Graeber, and as he
returns to Germany for three weeks? holiday, the home front is depicted solely from
Graeber?s point-of-view.
  Initially there appears to be no definite indication as to why Remarque at the beginning
of the novel should choose to offer glimpses into the minds of characters other than
Graeber. The access to the thoughts of Steinbrenner and Muecke do not significantly aid
their characterization to an extent which could not equally have been realized through
direct speech or in consistency with Graeber?s third-person limited perspective.
However, when viewing the introductory section on the front as a whole, a structure
emerges. First, a general picture of the front is drawn. Then the view is reduced to a
particular group; and finally the attention is concentrated on just Graeber. The focus
thereafter remains on this one character, and as the novel progresses, Graeber?s
centrality to the story becomes such a matter of course, that a number of chapters
commence by referring to him not by name, but merely as ?er?.
49
  Thematically, Zeit zu leben has obvious links to Im Westen, and it has indeed regularly
been analyzed in conjunction with this novel. Considering the success of Im Westen, in
which an element of its appeal is constituted by the immediateness achieved through the
present tense and the application of an Ich-Erz?hler, it is perhaps surprising that
Remarque should not make use of a similar voice in Zeit zu leben. Antkowiak suggests
that whilst Remarque participated in the First World War, he was in America during the
210
Second World War and therefore only experienced it as an observer. The critic argues
that Remarque subsequently opted for the more detached voice of a third-person
narrator in Zeit zu leben.
50
 However, it is equally plausible that Remarque simply did
not wish to lend the personally loaded voice of an Ich-Erz?hler to Graeber who, despite
being presented in a sympathetic light, nonetheless collaborates with the National
Socialist regime. Moreover, had Zeit zu leben been narrated in the first-person, the
reader might have identified too strongly with Graeber, and thereby found it difficult to
acknowledge and indeed accept his implication and guilt in the crimes depicted. Im
Westen did not impose such a dilemma, as B?umer and his comrades were depicted as
innocent victims.
51
 Graeber is likewise portrayed as a victim of historical circumstances,
but he is not depicted as guilt free. The third-person perspective therefore seems an apt
choice in Zeit zu leben, as it allows both the author and the reader to sympathize with
Graeber without necessarily identifying with him.
  Remarque?s novels generally reflect a close relationship between content and form. It
is partly on the grounds of this tight network of different elements in the novels ? the
manner in which Remarque creates of each work an aesthetic whole by tying together
formal aspects and the content ? that this study seeks to refute the classification of
Remarque as an author of Trivialliteratur. In order to identify the true extent to which
Remarque utilizes and unites content and form a short summary of the plot and a note
on the work?s general structure is necessary.
  Zeit zu leben can essentially be divided into three sections: The introductory section is
set on the Eastern Front. It is here Graeber?s doubts first materialize, encouraged by a
fellow soldier Ludwig Fresenburg.
52
 An almost identical connection rules the
relationship between Henry Metelmann and his comrade, Franz, in the autobiographical
work by the former about his time in the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front.
53
 However,
211
at this stage, Graeber (like Metelmann) does not yet acknowledge his doubts. Then
follows the novel?s main section, covering the three-week furlough Graeber spends in
his hometown Werden. The misery of the civilian population, the fear which clearly
controls the people and the destruction of the country trigger Graeber to question the
system which he has thus far supported. Graeber?s development is strengthened by his
sympathy for Elisabeth and Pohlmann, who both ? more or less openly ? oppose
Hitler?s regime. As a result of his gradual alienation from Germany and his own
National Socialist identity, Graeber is overcome by a sense of emptiness as his
existence proves devoid of purpose or a focal point. The unrelenting air-raids on
Werden have erased all signs of his former civilian identity. His parents are missing and
the parental home has been reduced to rubble. He consequently attempts to fulfil this
gap by marrying Elisabeth, believing that she will provide him with a viable focal point
and a reason to persevere.
54
 A final short section concludes the novel. It depicts
Graeber?s return to the battle front and his subsequent death. In the course of this
closing part, Graeber acknowledges that the foundation for his marriage was too shaky
and his implication in the war and its crimes too great to be overcome. In a conscious
action of repentance he shoots the former SS-man Steinbrenner and saves the lives of
four Russian prisoners by releasing them. Firda thus speaks rightly of Graeber?s
?cathartic quality?.
55
 Perhaps ironically, though, it is by the hands of one of these
Russians that Graeber is killed.
  Viewing the novel as a whole, Graeber is thus initially a Mitl?ufer who chooses to turn
a blind eye to the inhumanity of the National Socialist principle, but he gradually
acquires a more critical mind and he finally takes an active stand against the regime by
killing the committed Nazi, Steinbrenner.
56
 This act of repentance is combined with a
remark which was promptly censured from the German edition. Having killed
212
Steinbrenner, Graeber is looking at the body: ??M?rder?, sagte er [?] und meinte
Steinbrenner und sich selbst und unz?hlige andere? (Zeit zu leben, p. 398). With Zeit zu
leben, Remarque therefore accuses not merely the committed Nazis, but also those
numerous individuals who essentially opposed the regime but remained passive and
compliant.
57
  A number of formal aspects have been used to aid the conveyance of Graeber?s state of
mind and gradual transformation. These do not occur in succession, one after the other,
but run parallel to one another throughout the novel.
  Most striking is perhaps the symmetry between Graber?s emotional state and his
surroundings. It is noted on more than one occasion that Graeber experiences only
emptiness: ?Er sp?rte wie leer er war. Es war eine Leere ohne Schmerz? (Zeit zu leben,
p. 151); ?Graeber f?hlte nichts als Leere? (Zeit zu leben, p. 159); ?Er war v?llig
entspannt und leer? (Zeit zu leben, p. 191); ?Er f?hlte sich leer und ausgebrannt? (Zeit zu
leben, p. 232); ?Er fand nichts; es war nur Leere da? (Zeit zu leben, p. 373). The
recurrent reference to Graeber?s sense of emptiness shows the permanence and intensity
with which this mood dominates his mind. However, meaninglessness, emptiness, death
and decay also characterize Graeber?s external world.
  Graeber?s hometown, Werden, is largely depicted in a ghostly light. The streets are
empty and it is quiet. ?Er sah kaum Leute? (Zeit zu leben, p. 85); ?Die Stra?e war leer?
(Zeit zu leben, p. 161); ?Dann ging er durch die totenstille Stadt zue Kaserne? (Zeit zu
leben, p. 172); ?Die Stra?e war leer? (Zeit zu leben, p. 179). These images of
abandonment are, of course, partly the result of the regular air-raids and the preventive
measure of blackening out the town. However, the seemingly deserted environment also
serves to illustrate and emphasize Graeber?s loneliness. In fact, at times the external and
the internal emptiness are described in conjunction with one another: ?Der Schulhof war
213
leer. Niemand war da [?]. [?] Er [Graeber] roch den beklemmenden Schulgeruch und
sah die halbdunkle Treppe und die dunkel gestrichenen T?ren, die zur Aula und zu dem
Konferenzzimmer f?hrten. Er empfand nichts. [?] Graeber f?hlte nichts als Leere? [my
emphases] (Zeit zu leben, p. 159).
  Another method which Remarque utilizes to show the solitary position of Graeber, is
that of featuring a considerable number of unnamed characters. As Graeber returns to
Germany on leave, the people he encounters both on the journey and in search of his
parents are mostly strangers to him. Since the perspective presented is largely consistent
with that of Graeber, these characters must thus necessarily remain anonymous. They
are therefore identified merely by profession, actions or striking attributes: ?der
Kahlkopf?, ?der Schlosser?, ?die Maus?, ?der Ba?? (Zeit zu leben, pp. 80-81), ?ein SS-
Mann?, ?ein Brieftr?ger?, ?[z]wei Radfahrer? (Zeit zu leben, p. 182). Indeed, even the
familiar faces which Graeber does encounter are merely those of distant acquaintances.
Being unable to locate his parents and having lost also his childhood home and thereby
all material traces of his past, Graeber therefore essentially finds himself alone, without
a civilian identity and without a sense of belonging.
The consistent coincidence between Graeber?s state of mind and his physical
surroundings could be perceived as overly rigid and it could be argued that it reduces
the aesthetic impact of Zeit zu leben. However, such an interpretation would disregard
the fact that the perspective rarely deviates from that of Graeber. In fact, if remaining
true to this perspective, Graeber?s sense of desolation must necessarily have a certain
impact on the presentation of the environment. This is verified when Graeber suddenly
notices the people around him in the streets.
Graeber blickte die Leute an, die ihnen [Graeber und
Elisabeth] entgegenkamen. Er sah sie pl?tzlich anders als
214
fr?her. Jeder war ein Mensch und hatte ein Schicksal. Es
ist leicht, zu verurteilen und tapfer zu sein, wenn man
nichts hat, dachte er. Wenn man aber etwas hatte, ?nderte
sich die Welt [my emphasis] (Zeit zu leben, pp. 252-53).
  Until this point, the desertedness of Graeber?s physical surroundings has been stressed
time and again. Elisabeth, however, has only shortly before the above quotation
accepted Graeber?s marriage proposal and thereby given his existence renewed purpose.
Indeed, she comes to constitute the ?etwas? which alters Graeber?s perception of the
world. ?Wenn man aber etwas hatte, ?nderte sich die Welt [my emphasis]? (Zeit zu
leben, p. 253). The use of the indicative mood shows that Graeber at least believes to
have acquired renewed will to live. However, it is the sudden change in the presentation
of the surroundings ? the fact that the streets are no longer deserted ? that truly reflects
and conveys the inner change Graeber is experiencing.
  As stated above, Zeit zu leben opens with a general picture of the conditions on the
Eastern Front. Whereas all the preceding works commenced with immediate focus on
the protagonist, either through a direct introduction by name or through the presence as
an Ich-Erz?hler, the opening pages of Zeit zu leben are strangely devoid of people. No
specific characters are introduced. Instead focus is placed on the dead. Their prevalence
is stressed through a liberal application of vocabulary associated with or alluding to
death and putrefaction. These include: ?Leichen?, ?unbeerdigt?, ?geisterhaft?, ?Skelette?,
?trockener Tod? and ?schmieriger, stinkender Tod? (Zeit zu leben, p. 11). In fact, the
nouns ?Tod? and ?Tote? occur ten times, alone or as constituents in longer nouns, on the
two opening pages of Zeit zu leben.
  On these two pages, similes are additionally applied which allow the dead to resume
life temporarily:
215
[D]as Gas hatte die Toten gef?llt, und sie hatten sich
geisterhaft im Licht der fremden Sterne gehoben, als
k?mpften sie noch einmal, schweigend, ohne Hoffnung,
jeder f?r sich allein; ? aber schon am n?chsten Tage hatten
sie begonnen zu schrumpfen, sich der Erde
anzuschmiegen, unendlich m?de, als wollten sie
hineinkriechen [?] (Zeit zu leben, p. 11)
   The living soldiers are in contrast only alluded to through passive sentence structures
or through use of the impersonal personal pronoun ?man?: ?Man begrub sie wie Bretter
[my emphasis]? (Zeit zu leben, p. 12). The differing attention the narrator pays to the
living and the dead creates the impression of a world in which the living exist in the
shadow of those who have been killed. It is an environment in which death is both
active and dominant.
  The anonymity of the narrator and the fact that specific characters are only introduced
on the novel?s third page would initially suggest that the gloomy picture of the battle
front is presented from the perspective of the narrator. However, the very opening
sentence offers a clue about the perspective: ?Der Tod roch anders in Ru?land als in
Afrika? (Zeit zu leben, p. 11).
  This is clearly a subjective statement by somebody who has experienced death in
exactly these two geographical areas. As Zeit zu leben progresses it is revealed, on more
than one occasion, that Graeber fought on the African continent, before he was
transferred to Russia (Zeit zu leben, pp. 33, 219, 260). It can therefore with reason be
presumed that although Graeber?s character is only introduced on the novel?s ninth
page, the opening sentence and indeed its succeeding short but dark description of the
front is seen from his perspective. The gloomy atmosphere and the descriptions of the
environment therefore correlate with Graeber?s frame of mind from the very opening
sentence of Zeit zu leben.
216
  Aside from its parallelization with the presentation of the surroundings, Graeber?s
mental state is illustrated also through other narrative techniques. Two leitmotifs merit
particular attention.
58
   The first leitmotif which plays a role in conveying Graeber?s emotions is that of a
mirror. On more than one occasion, Graeber?s reaction to his own reflection is
described. Analogously to the aesthetic parallel between Graeber and his surroundings,
his reflection too alters according to his mental state. Revisiting the rubble of his
childhood home, Graeber discovers that another family has already taken shelter in its
ruins. The last traces of Graeber?s civilian identity are thereby conclusively obliterated.
The loss and rootlessness he subsequently experiences are not verbalized, but
communicated indirectly through, for instance, his perception of his own reflection in a
mirror which has been placed in a window display:
Es war sonderbar ? als s?he er einen Doppelg?nger und
w?re schon nicht mehr er selbst, sondern nur noch eine
Erinnerung, die weggewischt werden k?nnte, wenn er
noch einen Schritt weiterginge. [?] Er sah seine
Augenh?hlen und darunter die Schatten, die die Augen
verdeckten, als habe er keine mehr und w?re schon ein
Totenkopf. [?] Er sah sein Bild noch im Spiegel, aber
ihm war, als m?sse es gleich undeutlich werden,
wellenf?rmig, als m??ten die R?nder zerflie?en und sich
aufl?sen, aufgesogen von den schweigenden Pumpen,
zur?ckgezogen aus dem Begrenzten und der zuf?lligen
Form, die f?r kurze Zeit Ernst Graeber hie?, zur?ck in das
Grenzenlose, das nicht nur Tod war, sondern entsetzlich
viel mehr, Ausl?schung, Aufl?sung, Ende des Ich, Wirbel
sinnloser Atome, Nichts. [?] Was blieb, wenn er nicht
mehr da war? (Zeit zu leben, pp. 226-27).
  In answer to this question, Graeber shortly after proposes to Elisabeth. He thereby
hopes to preserve at least the memory of his person, should he be killed in the war. Her
acceptance evokes in Graeber a renewed sense of youthfulness and hunger for life.
217
Having changed to civilian clothing and studying the result in a mirror, Graeber thus no
longer sees a transparent and easily extinguishable figure:
Er betrachtete sich im Spiegel und erkannte sich kaum
wieder. Ein unfertiger, halb ausgebackener, junger
Mensch sah ihn dort verwundert an ? jemand, den er nicht
ernst genommen h?tte, w?re er ihm drau?en begegnet [my
emphasis] (Zeit zu leben, p. 238).
  Graeber can barely identify with the person in the reflection. He has become estranged
from civilian life and from the carefree attitude of youth. As a result, the fresh image in
the mirror seems irreconcilable with the psychologically drained Graeber. Nonetheless,
despite his exhaustion, Graeber sincerely attempts to regain the energy and will to
persevere, by marrying Elisabeth.
  The last few days prior to Graeber?s departure for the front, the newly wed couple
lodges in a guesthouse which, although being situated in a heavily bombed part of town,
stands miraculously untouched. The room they rent contains amongst other fittings a
mirror. ?Er [Graeber] blickte auf [?] das wehende Silber und Grau im Spiegel, und ihm
war, als st?nde ein Geheimnis sehr dicht dahinter und m?sse sich im n?chsten
Augenblick entschleiern? (Zeit zu leben, pp. 350-51). The secret path back to his youth
nonetheless remains hidden from Graeber; instead the mirror discloses only the extent
of his ruin. ?Er sah, w?hrend er zum Bett ging, sein Gesicht in dem grauen und silbernen
Spiegel. Er erkannte es nicht. Es war das Gesicht eines anderen [my emphasis]? (Zeit
zu leben, p. 352). At the earlier occasion when Graeber studied his reflection in the
mirror, he was said to barely recognize himself.
59
 He was, however, not entirely
estranged from the youthful image in the mirror, and thus still held the conviction that
he could successfully create an anchor (Elisabeth) to keep him fixed during the physical
and psychological turbulence of the war. However, immediately after the wedding
218
ceremony Graeber does not experience the sense of security he had anticipated : ?Ich
m??te eigentlich sehr gl?cklich sein, dachte er; aber er f?hlte es nicht so, wie er es
erwartet hatte? (Zeit zu leben, p. 275). Outwardly, Graeber nonetheless appears to be
enjoying the remaining time with Elisabeth; but the contentedness he displays is
artificial. The night prior to leaving for the front, Graeber again sees his own reflection
in the mirror. He is, however, met only by the gaze of a stranger. In this episode the
mirror not only forms part of one of the novel?s central leitmotifs, it also plays a
symbolic role and alludes to the illusory aspect of a mirror reflection. The stranger in
the mirror is thus a deceptive image of the real Graeber. This, however, also means that
the existence which is mirrored ? the marriage and the security and happiness it
signifies ? is an illusion too. As Graeber returns to the front, the memory of his
transitory relationship to Elisabeth proves insufficient in providing him hope for the
future: ?Er hatte eine Lampe aufstellen wollen, um zur?ckzufinden; aber er hatte sie
aufgestellt, bevor das Haus gebaut war. [?] Dr?ben hatte er das nicht gewu?t. Er war
dem Licht gefolgt und hatte nicht gefragt und hatte glauben wollen, es sei genug, ihm zu
folgen. Es war nicht genug? (Zeit zu leben, p. 387).
  The connection which has been shown to exist between Graeber and his surroundings
is supplemented with the mirror-leitmotif to depict the emotions he undergoes in the
Heimat. As shown above, Graeber?s varying perceptions of his appearance inform the
reader, indirectly, about his state of mind at these given moments in time. Aside from its
aesthetic function, the mirror-leitmotiv therefore serves to express Graeber?s emotions,
without actually verbalizing them. Thus, although staying within the scope of Graeber?s
perspective, the mirror-images convey information which exceeds the knowledge of his
character. When on his final day in Werden Graeber does not recognize his own mirror-
reflection, the reader is therefore indirectly notified that Graeber has not succeeded in
219
creating a durable link to civilian life. At this point, however, Graeber still nurtures his
self-delusion:
Er dachte ?ber das nach, was sie ?ber ein Kind gesagt
hatte. Es war gewesen, als w?rde pl?tzlich eine Wand
durchbrochen. Eine ?ffnung erschien, und dahinter
schwankte ungewi? wie ein Garten ein St?ck Zukunft.
[?] Wie endlos das wurde, wenn man es weiterverfolgte,
und wie sonderbar es war, zu f?hlen, da? das Leben ?ber
die Wand, vor der es bisher aufgeh?rt hatte, weitergehen
k?nnte und da? das, was er bisher fast wie einen hastigen
Raub betrachtet hatte, noch einmal ruhiger Besitz werden
k?nnte, weiterzugeben an fremdes, ungeborenes Dasein in
eine Ferne, die kein Ende hatte und voll von einer
Z?rtlichkeit war, die er nie gekannt hatte (Zeit zu leben, p.
358).
  Viewed in the context of the novel as a whole, Graeber?s emotional development is
initiated by a period during which he starts expressing doubts about the National
Socialist regime and its actions. These doubts are intensified as he returns to Germany
and realizes the extent to which Nazism has destroyed his country and his life. Through
conversation with a former teacher, Pohlmann, and through his relationship with
Elisabeth, Graeber not only comes to accept his own implication in the crimes of the
regime, he also recognizes the possibility of building a new life in which he can attempt
to atone his actions.
  The second leitmotiv which equates with these different stages in Graeber?s inner
development is more intricate than that of the mirror. It consists in itself of a
parallelization of the image of a human hand reaching upwards in a pleading gesture,
and that of a tree stretching its branches towards the light. In addition to the obvious
visual similarity between these two images, the hand and the tree are connected through
their common link to the concept of survival.
220
The leitmotif is already introduced on the opening pages of the novel. The body of a
dead soldier gradually comes to sight as the snow around him melts: ?Zuerst sah man
nur einen grauen Flecken im welkenden Wei?. Eine Stunde sp?ter war es eine Hand, die
sich verkrampft emporreckte? (Zeit zu leben, pp. 12-13). The plea of the stretched out
hand also characterizes Graeber?s emotional state at this point in the novel. Indeed,
turmoil continues to reign Graeber?s inner world, as he returns to Germany on leave.
This is depicted indirectly through an image of scorched trees: ?Verkohlte B?ume
standen auf einer Seite. Die Zweige und die kleineren ?ste waren verbrannt, die
St?mpfe und ein paar Haupt?ste ragten noch auf. Sie sahen aus wie riesige schwarze
H?nde, die sich aus der Erde zum Himmel reckten [my emphasis]? (Zeit zu leben, p. 86).
The simile in the latter sentence is reminiscent of the frozen soldier?s hand depicted at
the opening of the novel. The plea he appeared to be gesturing is thereby echoed in the
image of the scorched tree. This tree not only serves to illustrate the physical destruction
of the town, but also to convey the helplessness and despair which Graeber experiences
as he finds his civilian past obliterated.
  The tree-and-hand leitmotiv is used again following Graeber?s initial conversation
with his former teacher, Pohlmann. It is worth noting that this dialogue constitutes one
of the key episodes in the novel, and features Graeber?s important question: ?Wann wird
zu Mord, was man sonst Heldentum nennt?? (Zeit zu leben, p. 188). Pohlmann offers no
conclusive solution to Graeber?s dilemma, but their conversation does bring the younger
man a sensation of closure. His thoughts unequivocally convey this:
Ihm war zumute wie jemand, der nach einer langen,
ungewissen Gerichtsverhandlung endlich ein Urteil
bekommen hat und dem es fast gleichg?ltig ist, ob es ein
Freispruch ist oder nicht. [?] Er war v?llig entspannt und
leer und h?tte nicht sagen k?nnen, ob er trostlos war oder
221
nicht. Er wollte nur pl?tzlich nicht mehr denken. Es war
nichts mehr zu denken (Zeit zu leben, pp. 190-91).
  It is, however, Graeber?s acknowledgement of a large limetree and the positive light in
which he perceives it that truly shows his altered frame of mind.
Er sah eine gro?e Linde, die vor einem eingest?rzten
Hause stand. Sie war unbesch?digt und reckte ihren
Stamm mit den ?sten aus der Erde wie eine ungeheure,
weit offene Hand, die sich, mit Gr?n ?berflogen, dem
Licht und den hellen Wolken entgegenstreckte [my
emphasis] (Zeit zu leben, p. 191).
  In this passage, the limetree symbolizes what might be termed the ?new Graeber?. The
collapsed house, on the contrary, signifies his former self: Graeber, the soldier and
defender of National Socialism. The fact that the tree is undamaged, green and reaches
for life indicates Graeber?s restored hope for the future. Indeed, shortly after, when
dining with Elisabeth, the leitmotiv appears again and this time, in the form of a simile,
Graeber explicitly juxtaposes his own character with the tree:
Der Nachmittag war weit weg. Geblieben war nur der
Widerschein des Augenblicks, als das Leben ihm pl?tzlich
sehr nahe war und mit B?umen aus Pflastersteinen und
Ruinen zu brechen schien, um mit gr?nen H?nden nach
dem Licht zu greifen. Zwei Wochen, dachte er. Zwei
Wochen Leben noch. Ich sollte es greifen wie die Linde
das Licht [my emphasis] (Zeit zu leben, p. 192).
60
  On returning to the front, however, he realizes that the memory of Elisabeth is too
weak to preserve his hope for the future. Remarque again applies the hand/ tree
leitmotiv to communicate this:
222
Graeber sah vor sich, im Flackern der Explosionen, einen
Helm mit wei?en Augen darunter, ein aufgerissenes
Mundloch, und dahinter, wie einen knorrigen, lebendigen
Ast, einen Arm, der ausholte ? er scho? hinein, ri? dem
Rekruten neben sich eine Handgranate weg, mit der er
nicht fertig wurde, und warf sie hinterher. Sie explodierte
[my emphasis] (Zeit zu leben, p. 377).
  The passage is introduced with the words ?Graeber sah?, so the perspective is that of
Graeber. The visual likeness between the arm of an enemy soldier and the branch of a
tree is therefore established by him. In the Heimat, the limetree had represented, to
Graeber, life and the prospects of a righteous existence. Throwing a hand grenade at the
enemy soldier with the arm stretched out like a branch, Graeber thus not only causes the
destruction of another human being, but also sees his own hopes being obliterated.
  The emptiness and loneliness which dominate the atmosphere of Zeit zu leben form an
interesting contrast to Funke Leben. Both novels essentially depict the same war in
similar, provincial towns, and both have a concentration camp nearby. The towns are
not strictly identical: 509?s camp is situated at the outskirts of Mellern, whereas
Graeber?s home town bears the name Werden. Nonetheless, as proposed in the analysis
of Funke Leben, the actual identity of the town is of little import. It is its quality as a
representative of any German town and the portrayal of the attitude of the German
population during the Second World War which are significant. Yet, despite being set in
similar geographical locations during the same historical period, the perspectives from
which the two novels are related differ considerably. Funke Leben observes the war
predominantly from within the confinement of the camp. The excessive overcrowding
of prisoners and their physical restriction therefore give the novel a claustrophobic
feeling which extends to affect the reader. Zeit zu leben, on the contrary, shows the war
from the viewpoint of a soldier in the Wehrmacht. He gradually comes to experience
both alienation and emptiness, emotions which, for aesthetic and amplifying purposes,
223
are paralleled in Graeber?s physical environment. Fear inhibits honest interaction
between Graeber and his comrades on the front, and the same problem characterizes his
contact with the population in the Heimat. In Werden there is no trace of Graeber?s
parents and his parental home is in ruins. The seclusion and loneliness Graeber as a
result experiences give Zeit zu leben an air of emptiness and vastness, which sharply
contrasts to the claustrophobic atmosphere of the preceding work.
61
  The narrative strategies discussed thus far in relation to Zeit zu leben have largely
revolved around Graeber and the manner in which his perspective and character are
conveyed. The novel is, however, also rich on local details which add texture, and
enhance the overall understanding and reading experience of Zeit zu leben.
  On a number of occasions Remarque uses, for example, vocabulary or expressions
which hold both a literal and a figurative meaning. Juxtaposing these two meanings,
often within the same sentence, Remarque not only stresses the duality of the word or
expression in question, but simultaneously creates an aesthetically pleasing effect.
Sitting on a bench at the outskirts of Werden one evening, Graeber and Elisabeth look at
the blacked out town:
?Wie Schwarz das ist?, sagte sie und deutete auf die Stadt.
[?] ?Sieh nicht hin. Dreh dich um. Da ist es anders.? Die
Bank stand gerade auf der Kuppe der Anh?he, und der
H?gel senkte sich nach der anderen Seite langsam hinab ?
zu Feldern, mondbeschienenen Wegen, Pappelalleen,
einem Dorfkirchturm, und dann zu Wald und zu den
blauen Bergen am Horizont. ?Da ist aller Frieden der
Welt?, sagte Graeber. ?Einfach, was?? ?Einfach, wenn
man das kann ? sich umdrehen und nicht mehr an das
andere denken.? ?Das lernt man bald [my emphases]?
(Zeit zu leben, pp. 151-52).
   Initially, ?umdrehen? is referring to the physical action of turning around. In the latter
instance, however, the word has taken on the figurative (metaphorical) meaning of
224
?turning a blind eye?. This becomes particularly clear from Graeber?s subsequent
response: ?Das lernt man bald?.
  A related technique, chiasmus, is used when towards the end of the novel Graeber has
to return to the front. Wishing to avoid a prolonged farewell, he leaves Elisabeth at the
guest house and sets off alone for the train station: ?Er sah sich nicht um. Er ging nicht
zu langsam und nicht zu schnell. Der Tornister war schwer, und die Stra?e war sehr
lang. Als er um die Ecke bog, bog er um viele Ecken? [my emphases] (Zeit zu leben, p.
360).  The repeated element (um die Ecke biegen) is applied firstly in its literal and then
in its figurative sense. As Graeber turns at the street corner, he physically distances
himself from Elisabeth and the life she represents. However, the physical departure
creates in Graeber also a strong sensation of emotional distance; expressed
metaphorically as ?turning many corners?.
62
  Another narrative tool which Remarque applies locally in Zeit zu leben is that of
reiteration. Following an air raid, for example, extensive use of vocabulary associated
with fire serves to convey the extent of the conflagration:
Die Stadt stank nach Brand und Tod und war voll von
Feuern. [?] [E]s gab Feuer, die fast z?rtlich an
stehengebliebenen H?userfronten emporwehten, dicht,
scheu, die vorsichtig umarmend, und andere, die mit
Gewalt aus Fensterh?hlen schossen. Es gab Feuersbr?nste
und Feuerw?nde und Feuerst?rme, es gab feurige Tote,
und es gab feurige Verletzte, die schreiend aus den
H?usern brachen [?]. ?Die Fackeln?, sagte jemand, der
neben Graeber stand. ?Man kann sie nicht retten. Sie
verbrennen lebendig. Das verfluchte Zeug aus den
Brandbomben bespritzt sie und brennt durch alles, Haut,
Fleisch oder Knochen [my emphases]? (Zeit zu leben, p.
288).
  As Graeber inspects the casualties, Remarque again adorns the narrative. Two sets of
alliterations, consisting of ?aus-? and ?zer-?, follow in succession of one another. The
225
latter is particularly apposite in the given context, as the prefix ?zer-? implies a negative
development or destruction, and the force with which it is taking place:
Wie ein Schlachthof, dachte er [Graeber]. Nein, nicht ein
Schlachthof; ein Schlachthof war ordentlicher, die Tiere
waren nach Regeln zerschnitten, ausgeblutet und
ausgenommen. Hier waren sie zerfetzt, zermalmt,
zerrissen, versengt und gebraten [my emphases] (Zeit zu
leben, p. 289).
  The connection between the names and qualities of many of Remarque?s characters
has already been noted. In Zeit zu leben, Remarque again makes use of this strategy.
The name of the protagonist, Ernst Graeber, for example, consists of two elements
which both correlate with the sadness and emotional decline of this character: The first
name can be read as the German adjective ?ernst?, and there is an obvious phonetic
relationship between the surname Graeber and the plural of the noun ?Grab? (i.e.
?Gr?ber?). The full name of the protagonist thus implies a gloominess which proves
descriptive of both Graeber?s character and the general atmosphere of the novel.
  One of the peripheral characters, who does not even feature in person but appears only
in the memories of Graeber, is that of his former school headmaster. ?Schimmel, der
Direktor, hatte gl?hende Reden vor ihr gehalten ?ber Rache, Gro?deutschland und die
kommende Vergeltung. Schimmel hatte einen dicken, weichen Bauch gehabt und
immer sehr geschwitzt? (Zeit zu leben, p. 160). There is an obvious parallel between
Graeber?s headmaster in Zeit zu leben and B?umer?s former teacher, Kantorek, in Im
Westen. However, whereas the name of the latter is neutral, ?Schimmel? implies
outdatedness and decay. It is furthermore indicative of the obsolete values of this
character and the heinous ideology he represents. Returning for a moment to Funke
Leben, a similar play on words in relation to character names is likewise to be found in
226
that novel. A particular unpleasant Kapo named Strohschneider addresses some
emaciated prisoners as ?Heuschrecken? (Funke Leben, p. 83). The connection is
inconspicuous, but exemplifies Remarque?s attention to detail.
  Reiterations, tropes and play on words exercise their effect by being registered by the
reader. There are, however, also narrative tools which function at a more subconscious
level. Arriving in his home town and seeing the scars of the air raids on buildings and
streets, Graeber is gripped by fear for his parents? welfare: ?Eine wilde Angst hatte ihn
pl?tzlich gepackt? (Zeit zu leben, p. 86). However, in addition to this direct statement,
the panic he experiences is further communicated through alterations in the pace:
Ihm war eingefallen, da? nicht weit vom Hause seiner
Eltern sich ein kleines Kupferwerk befand. Es konnte ein
Ziel gewesen sein. Er stolperte ?ber die Stra?en und ?ber
die schwelenden, feuchten Ruinen, so rasch er konnte, er
stie? an Leute, er rannte vorw?rts, er kletterte ?ber
Schutthaufen, und dann blieb er stehen. Er wu?te nicht
mehr, wo er war [my emphasis] (Zeit zu leben, p. 86).
  The same technique was examined in relation to Arc de Triomphe. The asyndetic
coordination of short clauses, characteristic for this passage, has an accelerating effect
on the pace and therefore illustrates the increased heart rate of Graeber?s panic-stricken
body. The pace is brought to a sudden halt following the clause: ?und dann blieb er
stehen?. The adverb ?dann? has a particularly decelerating effect in that it implies a
switch from one condition to another: Having stumbled, run and climbed, Graeber
?dann? stops. The verbs indicating physical activeness are contrasted with the passive
action of standing still. The inclusion of ?dann? simultaneously builds up the reader?s
anticipation and curiosity as to what happens next.
  A moment later, as the chapter draws to a close, this strategy is repeated:
227
Graeber versuchte sich zu orientieren. Er h?tte von hier
aus den Turm der Katharinenkirche sehen m?ssen. Er sah
ihn nicht. Vielleicht war auch die Kirche
zusammengest?rzt. Er fragte niemand mehr. Irgendwo sah
er Bahren stehen. Leute schaufelten. Feuerwehrm?nner
rannten herum. Wasser klatschte in Qualm. Eine d?stere
Lohe hing ?ber dem Kupferwerk. Dann fand er die
Hakenstra?e [my emphasis] (Zeit zu leben, p. 86).
  The short sentences expedite the pace. However, in the closing sentence, ?dann? stops
the flow, but it also awakens the curiousity in the reader who will want to know the
state of Graeber?s childhood street. To find out, the reader must therefore move to the
next chapter.
  The above formal analysis shows that Remarque applies an array of narrative tools in
both Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben. These include perspectival elements, register,
imagery, leitmotivs and the proportion of straight narrative to dialogue. The formal
elements have been shown to fulfil two purposes. They partly increase the aesthetic
impact of the novels; they partly compliment the contents and aid the conveyance of
Remarque?s message.
  However, as for example Wagener has pointed out, the two novels were received
considerably better abroad than they were in Germany.
63
 One German critic expressed
the following wish about Funke Leben: ?Es war hoffentlich der letzte Cocktailscherz des
Herrn Remarque!?
64
  As the study by the Mitscherlichs also asserts, German reviews
reflect the German nation?s difficulty in accepting an overall guilt in the crimes of the
regime. Some critics even attempt to parallelize the sufferings of the concentration
camp victims with the hardship experienced by the civilian population, particularly as
the war progressed. With reference to Dostoyevsky?s From the House of the Dead, one
critic describes the concentration camp experience as follows: ?Vor allem aber ist da
eines: die Einsicht in die eigene Schuld [that of the prisoners], die nur im Glauben
228
m?glich ist. Es spielt eines Tages keine Rolle mehr, was der Oberreichsanwalt, das
Volksgericht oder die Gestapo ?ber einen verh?ngt haben. Deshalb sitzt man nicht
hinter dem Draht. Mit sich selbst hat man etwas auszuk?mpfen. Die Gegenseite erkennt
man pl?tzlich als Marionetten, ebenso gefangen sie man selbst ist [?]?.
65
 This attempt
to depict the general population as victims is also found in other reviews:
Aber die Deutschen, die noch leben, haben auch einiges
?berstehen m?ssen, und sie haben es vielleicht oft
schwerer getragen als Remarque glaubt. Die R?cksicht
auf den ?Funken Leben?, der das deutsche Volk ?ber die
schweren Jahre nach dem Kriege hinweggebracht hat,
veranla?t uns, den neuen Roman von Remarque mit aller
Sch?rfe abzulehnen.
66
  Schneider thus concludes about the German reception of Remarque?s work from the
Adenauer period:
Der Verdacht liegt nahe, dass man sich durchaus dar?ber
klar war, wie berechtigt und zutreffend Remarques
Mahnungen und Anklagen waren, und dass man daher zu
anderen Mitteln greifen musste, um sie als irrelevant
abzutun: der bewusst falsche Vorwurf sachlicher Fehler,
die Kritik wegen ?sthetischer M?ngel, der Vorwurf der
Trivialit?t, die Einbindung in die publizistischen Fronten
des Kalten Kriegs.
67
  Although negative criticism was also voiced outside the German borders, the tone was
less aggressive, and positive points featured alongside the less enthusiastic comments.
Hence, as was initiated already in 1929 with the publication of Im Westen, the political
impact of Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben, and their dealing with topics which were
preferred left alone, clearly influenced their overall reception in Germany. The sales
figures of Funke Leben remained low: ?Noch 1961, also neun Jahre nach Erscheinen des
229
Buches, war der an Remarque gezahlte Vorschu? nicht durch die Verkaufserl?se
abgedeckt?.
68
  However, the importance of the reviewer?s or the reader?s personal distance to the
events depicted should not be overlooked as an influence in the evaluation process of
the novels. The passing of time generally creates emotional distance to an experience or
event. In relation to the reviews of Remarque?s novels, the critics? opinions seem very
much governed by their own relationship to the depicted issues. In the 1950s when
Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben were first published, Germany?s Nazi past was still a
delicate topic for many Germans. This is clearly conveyed in the already quoted review:
?Aber die Deutschen, die noch leben, haben auch einiges ?berstehen m?ssen, und sie
haben es vielleicht oft schwerer getragen als Remarque glaubt?.
69
 The same critic,
however, openly praises Remarque?s treatment of the First World War in Im Westen.
Nonetheless, in the late 1920s, Im Westen had been met by an even greater outcry than
both Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben when they appeared in the decade following the
Second World War. This critic?s agreeable attitude towards Im Westen in the 1950s can
therefore be interpreted as reflecting his own emotional detachment from the historical
event of the Great War, whereas the Second World War still figures as a recent event in
his memory. However, even in an article from the 1990s, Edgar Hilsenrath finds it
necessary to defend and stress that Remarque is not an author of Trivialliteratur. This
indicates that such a classification of Remarque?s oeuvre is still widely perceived to be
justifiable. As the analysis of Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben show, though, both novels
are meticulously written with consideration for the interrelationship between content
and form.
70
 Moreover, both novels were intended to educate and shake up the German
nation and should therefore not be rejected as Trivialliteratur, if this genre indeed tends
towards ?[eine] au?engeleitet[e] Anpassung [...] an die Bed?rfnislage ihrer
230
Leserzielgruppen, die, statt die Wahrheit erkennen zu wollen, nur die scheinhafte
Befriedigung ihrer W?nsche im Sinne h?tten?.
71
231
                                  Notes to Der Funke Leben and
                        Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben
1. This categorization is used, for instance, in the title of the publication: Schneider,
Erich Maria Remarque: Ein Chronist des 20. Jahrhunderts.
2. Remarque?s sister, Elfriede Scholz, was executed on 16 December 1943. The
circumstances of her death are alluded to on occasion in both Funke Leben and Zeit zu
leben. The most obvious example is found in Zeit zu leben where Graeber reads a
newspaper article about four citizens who have been sentenced to death because they
doubted German victory: ?Man hatte ihnen mit einem Beil die K?pfe abgehackt. Die
Guillotine war l?ngst abgeschafft worden im Dritten Reich. Sie war zu menschlich?
(Zeit zu leben, p. 271). Although the connection between this statement and the case of
Remarque?s sister is obvious, the two incidents are not, as Owen suggests, ?identical?.
Elfriede Scholz was executed on a guillotine. Owen, Erich Maria Remarque: A Critical
Bio-Bibliography, p. 269. For more on Elfriede Scholz, see: Elfriede Scholz, geb.
Remark: Im Namen des deutschen Volkes; Dokumente einer justitiellen Ermordung,
edited by Claudia Glunz and Thomas F. Schneider (Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1997); ?Reue ist
undeutsch?. Erich Maria Remarque?s Der Funke Leben und das Konzentrationslager
Buchenwald: Katalog zur Ausstellung, edited by Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman
Westphalen (Bramsche: Rasch, 1992). The first American edition of Funke Leben was
dedicated to Remarque?s sister. This dedication was also included in, for instance, the
Italian, the Spanish and the French translations of the work, but it did not feature in the
German edition, and was only introduced to this in 1988. Bernhard Nienaber, Vom
anachronistischen Helden zum larmoyanten Untertan: Eine Untersuchung zur
Entwicklung der Humanismuskonzeption in Erich Maria Remarques Romanen der
Adenauer-Restauration (W?rzburg: K?nigshausen und Neumann, 1997), pp. 34-35.
3. Remarque, ?Der Funke Leben (1952/ 53)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist, pp. 94-95 (p.
95).
4. Thomas F. Schneider, ?M?rder, die empfindlich sind: Zur Entstehung von Der Funke
Leben?, in ?Reue ist undeutsch?, pp. 14-20, p. 16. See also: Elfriede Scholz, geb.
Remark. Im Namen des deutschen Volkes, edited by Glunz and Schneider.
5. In written correspondence with Kiepenheuer und Witsch from June 1952 and prior to
the German publication of Funke Leben, Remarque suggests that the cited purpose of
the work should be printed on the book?s protective cover. See Das unbekannte Werk,
V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, pp. 148-49.
6. Schlant proposes that ?no other postwar author has scrutinized this passivity as
unremittingly as Lenz?. Ernestine Schlant, The Language of Silence: West German
Literature and the Holocaust (New York etc.: Routledge, 1999), p. 127. Although
Schlant does not draw comparisons between Lenz?s and Remarque?s works, the
passivity which Lenz?s protagonist, Eugen Rapp, displays in Neue Zeit is largely
transferable to the main character, Ernst Graeber, in Zeit zu leben. He realizes that his
lack of direct opposition is an indirect support of National Socialist. Schlant, The
Language of Silence, p. 127. The two protagonists differ, however, in the fact that Rapp
is unable to overcome his passivity, whereas Graeber makes an attempt to defy the
232
regime and to thereby repent the wrongs he has previously done through relatively
unquestioned compliance.
7. This is noted in, for example: Owen, Erich Maria Remarque: A Critical Bio-
Bibliography, p. 264; Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque: Ein Chronist des 20.
Jahrhunderts, p. 101; Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His
Novels, pp. 146, 175; Schneider, ??Ein ekler Leichenwurm??, p. 45; Thorkild Hansen,
?Intet nyt fra ?stfronten: Erich Maria Remarques nye roman om den anden verdenskrig?,
Information, 3 September 1954, no page.
8. Remarque, ?Der Funke Leben. Vorwort (1952)?, p. 92.
9. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 68; Firda, Erich Maria
Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels, pp. 146-47.
10. Remarque, ?Der Funke Leben (1952/ 53)?, p. 94.
11. Remarque, ?Der Funke Leben. Vorwort (1952)?, p. 92.
12. Andrea Reiter, Narrating the Holocaust, translated by Patrick Camiller (London
etc.: Continuum, 2000). Reiter?s study includes a wide selection of authentic accounts
by former inmates. She examines the writers? ? many first-time authors ? approaches to
explaining their experiences.
13. ?Es mag von Interesse sein, da? es selbst 1952 f?r ihn [den Autor] schwer war, einen
Verleger in Deutschland zu finden. Selbst das gr??te Schweizer Verlagshaus, das einen
Vertrag f?r Der Funke Leben  abgeschlossen hatte, weigerte sich, das Buch nach der
Fertigstellung zu drucken, und gab als Begr?ndung an, da? dieses Buch und alle
anderen B?cher des Verlages in Deutschland boykottiert w?rden, wenn es erschiene.
Andere Verleger wollten ?nderungen. Als das Buch schlie?lich in Deutschland
herauskam, war die Reaktion zum gr??ten Teil feindselig, vorsichtig und zur?ckhaltend,
? zu einem kleineren Teil wurde das Buch ohne Einw?nde angenommen. Deutschland
hatte schon begonnen, die Welt von 1933 bis 1945 (so schnell wie m?glich) zu
vergessen, ? nicht zu bereuen. Zu vergessen. Es war die Zeit des ?Deutschen Booms?,
des ?Wirtschaftswunders?. Auch waren die meisten Nazis zur?ck. Das Buch verst?rte
zu dieser Zeit. Der Autor bedauert das nicht. Er hofft, weiterhin auf diese Art
?verst?rend? zu sein.? Remarque?s indignation and his increasingly overt political
stance is clearly expressed in this excerpt. Remarque, Der Funke Leben (1952/ 53), p.
95.
14. Anke Zimmer, ?Seine verbale Spitzen gegen Autoren, Verleger und Kritiker sitzen.
Ein Gespr?ch mit Edgar Hilsenrath: ?Reich-Ranicki ist ein Idiot?, Fuldaer Zeitung, 23
October 1999, no page.   
15. Zimmer, ?Seine verbale Spitzen gegen Autoren, Verleger und Kritiker sitzen?.
16. Ernestine Schlant, The Language of Silence, pp. 11-12. However, it should be noted
that as a communist state, the GDR largely perceived itself detached from the National
Socialist Regime, as it interpreted the rise of Hitler as rooting in capitalism. In addition,
communists constituted a considerable proportion of the prisoners in the concentration
233
camps. With the lack of a similar ideological shield to hide behind, it was hence
predominantly West Germany which struggled to deal with its Nazi past.
17. Thomas F. Schneider, ?The Empty Stage: Comments on the Stage ?War? about Erich
Maria Remarque?s Die letzte Station?, in Modern War on Stage and Screen/ Der
moderne Krieg auf der B?hne, edited by Wolfgang G?rtschacher and Holger Klein
(Lewiston etc.: Edwin Mellen, 1997), pp. 53-65 (p. 58); Schneider, ??Ein ekler
Leichenwurm??, pp. 52-53.
18. Schneider, ?The Empty Stage: Comments on the Stage ?War??, p. 55. See also:
Liepman, Ein deutscher Jude denkt ?ber Deutschland nach, p. 12. Liepman produces a
list of cases in which, following the war, Nazis successfully assumed new identities and
thereby managed to evade disclosure and prosecution for more than a decade. To
highlight the numerousness of such cases, Liepman notes that his examples constitute
the cases which were mentioned in the press during just one week in the year of 1959.
19. A sketch by Remarque shows how the author imagined the physical structure of
Mellern concentration camp. This drawing is included in: Schneider, Erich Maria
Remarque: Ein Chronist des 20. Jahrhunderts, pp. 98-99.
20. See, for example: Franz Baumer, E. M. Remarque (Berlin: Colloquium, 1976), p.
84; Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and Film Biography, p. 196; Wagener,
Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 69.
21. Although the novel does not include a preface, the preliminary serialization of the
work in the American magazine, Collier?s, was introduced by a short statement. See,
?Erl?uterungen?, in Ein militanter Pazifist, pp. 144-60 (p. 150).
22. Erich Maria Remarque, ?Der Funke Leben. Vorwort?, p. 91.
23. Wagener even nominates Neubauer as ?one of the most well-rounded characters he
[Remarque] has ever described?. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p.
74.
24. For concentration camp jargon and the euphemistic nature of National Socialist
lingo, see: Reiter, Narrating the Holocaust, pp. 86-93. In relation to Nazi euphemism,
see also Hannes Heer, Vom Verschwinden der T?ter: Der Vernichtungskrieg fand statt,
aber keiner war dabei (Berlin: Aufbau, 2004), pp. 100-01.
25. Wieslaw Kielar, Anus Mundi: Five Years in Auschwitz (London etc.: Penguin,
1982), pp. 73-74. The work was published in Polish in 1972. The first English
translation was published in 1981.
26. Reiter, Narrating the Holocaust, pp. 98-123. The Inferno is used as an image of
comparison in, for example, Kielar, Anus Mundi, p. 177.
27. Reiter, Narrating the Holocaust, pp. 166-67.
234
28. Pascal Nicklas, ?The Disappearance of the Body: Pain and the Representation of
War?, in Modern War on Stage and Screen/ Der moderne Krieg auf der B?hne, pp. 523-
40 (pp. 524, 528).
29. Reiter, Narrating the Holocaust, p. 44.
30. Nicklas, ?The Disappearance of the Body: Pain and the Representation of War?, pp.
536-37.
31. An episode with a similar outcome is reported by Kielar. Arriving on a transport
destined for the gas chambers, a young Jewish woman snatches a gun from one of the
SS guards and kill him. Enraged, other SS men shoot down the entire transport rather
than following the usual procedure of extermination through gas. ?The incident passed
on from mouth to mouth and embellished in various ways grew into a legend. Without
doubt this heroic deed by a weak woman, in the face of certain death, gave moral
support to every prisoner.? Kielar, Anus Mundi, p. 178.
32. See, for example, Pfeiler?s review from 1952 which describes them as ?stereotypes?.
W. K. Pfeiler, ?Erich Maria Remarque. Der Funke Leben?, Books Abroad, Summer
1952, no page. In contrast, Taylor regards Remarque?s SS-characters as ?the perfect
representatives of a regime which is evil incarnate?. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A
Literary and Film Biography, p. 185.
33. Indeed, a reviewer of Funke Leben erroneously speaks of ?H?ftling 508? which ?
although unintentionally ? stresses the individual behind the number. ?Ein KZ-Roman
wie er vom ?bel ist?, Heute und Morgen, 1952, p. 1134.
34. Taylor has likewise noted this: ?By designating Koller [509?s real name] by number
rather than by name Remarque succeeds in conferring on him ?Everyman? status. His
fate, therefore, serves as a symbol for the greater tragedy of the hosts of victims who
lost their lives because of Nazi crimes?. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and
Film Biography, p. 183.
35. Kielar, Anus Mundi.
36. Kielar, Anus Mundi, p. 5.
37. Kielar does not refer to the particularly weak as human beings either. Instead he
says: ?[?] [T]hese sick, starving, filthy, dying creatures made a fearful impression on
me. To look at them was appalling [my emphasis]?. Kielar, Anus Mundi, p. 133.
38. Richard Kirn, ?Ein Buch, das seinen Autor ehrt?, Frankfurter Neue Presse, 27
September 1952, p. 18. See also: Bernhard Nienaber, Vom anachronistischen Helden
zum larmoyanten Untertan, p. 36.
39. ??Musulmans? is one widespread expression peculiar to the camps: it designated
those living dead who gave up struggle for existence and let all the rigours of the camp
wash over and bury them. The origin of the term is not altogether clear. Hermann
Langbein reports that he first came across it in Auschwitz, and that ?musulman? was
only later used in other camps. He also thinks that the term ? which applied to female
235
prisoners, too ? arose from the bent body posture that distantly reminded people of a
praying Arab.? Reiter, Narrating the Holocaust, p. 87.
40. The idea of describing life as a ?spark? recurs in several of Remarque?s novels. In Im
Westen, for example, B?umer says of Kat and himself: ?Wir sind zwei Menschen, zwei
winzige Funken Leben, drau?en ist der Nacht und der Kreis des Todes? (Im Westen, p.
72).
41. Recurring regularly in the novel, these indirect allusions to the title form a red
thread through the work: ?[E]s war, als h?tte jemand einen lautlosen Befehl ?ber all die
todm?den, abgezehrten, halbverhungerten M?nner hingeschrien, als h?tte ein Funke ihr
Blut entz?ndet, ihr Gehirn aufgeweckt und ihre nerven und Muskeln zesammengerissen
[my emphasis]? (Funke Leben, p. 152). ?Das Echo wieder, ein fernster Herzschlag, die
schmale Trommel des Pulses, und mehr: das Echo im Echo, H?nde, die wieder H?nde
waren, der Funke, nicht erloschen ? glimmend wieder, und: st?rker als vorher [my
emphasis]? (Funke Leben, p. 187). ?So wanderten sie ?ber den Platz [?] ? eine
geisterhafte Promenade von Skeletten, in denen ein Funke Leben trotz allem nicht
erstorben war [my emphasis]? (Funke Leben, p. 345).
42. ?Kapos (vom Italienischen ?il capo? = das Haupt, der Vorstand), H?ftlinge, die den
Befehl ?ber Arbeitskommandos hatten und dem SS-Kommandof?hrer verantwortlich
waren, der sie durch den Arbeitsdienstf?hrer einsetzen lie?. Die Kapos hatten
Vorarbeiter zur Seite und waren nichts als Aufsichtspersonen, die disponierten, selbst
aber nicht arbeiteten. [?] Meistens handelte es sich, besonders in den Anfangsjahren,
um robuste Naturen ? damals vor allem um ehemalige SA-Leute, Fremdlegion?re und
Kriminelle ?, die mit dem Pr?gel umzugehen verstanden [?].? Eugon Kogon, Der SS-
Staat (Stockholm: Bergmann-Fischer, 1947), pp. 63-64.
43. Jan Str?mpel, ?Kammersymphonie des Todes: Erich Maria Remarques ?Der Funke
Leben?, Anna Seghers ?Das siebte Kreuz? und eine Gattung namens ?KZ-Romane?, in
Text+Kritik, 149, pp. 55-64 (pp.59-60).
44. There might be a connection to Wilhelm Busch?s famous poem, Es sitzt ein Vogel in
Kritik des Herzens from 1874. On Remarque?s early cartoon strip, Die Contibuben,
Thomas Schneider mentions its similarity to Max und Moritz who, similar to
Remarque?s Contibuben, carry out a numer of pranks referred to as ?erster Streich?,
?zweiter Streich?, etc. Remarque, Das Unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte,
Vol. 4, pp. 465-70, 547-48.
45. Robert van Gelder, ?An Interview with Erich Maria Remarque: Who outlines his
rules for handling luck, loneliness and refugee living. January 27, 1946?, in Writers and
Writing (New York: Charles Schribner?s Sons, 1946), pp, 376-81 (pp. 377-78). Also:
Thomas F. Schneider, Unabh?ngigkeit ? Toleranz ? Humor: Erich Maria Remarque
1898-1970 ([1998] Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 2001), p. 214.
Remarque?s statement reappears in different context in his later novel, Der schwarze
Obelisk. In the year of 1923, the protagonist, Bodmer, feels both indignant and
saddened when he almost witnesses the political murder of a supporter of the Weimar
Republic. Having participated in the First World War, he therefore wonders: ?[W]ir alle
haben doch so viele Tote im Kriege gesehen, und wir wissen, da? ?ber zwei Millionen
von uns nutzlos gefallen sind ? warum sind wir da so erregt wegen eines einzelnen, und
236
die zwei Millionen haben wir schon fast vergessen? Aber das ist wohl so, weil ein
einzelner immer der Tod ist ? und zwei Millionen immer nur eine Statistik? (Der
schwarze Obelisk), p. 128.
46. The name Ruth Holland constitutes another example of Remarque?s recycling of
character names. The young woman whom Kern falls in love with in Liebe Deinen
N?chsten is likewise called Ruth Holland.
47. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and Film Biography, p. 190.
48. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 72.
49. See chapter seven, nine, twenty-one and twenty-five of Zeit zu leben.
50. Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, pp. 73-75.
51. For a comparison of the protagonists B?umer and Graeber, see Wagener,
Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 77-79; Wagener, ?Erich Maria Remarque,
Im Westen nichts Neues ? Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben: Ein Autor, zwei
Weltkriege?.
52. As has already been proposed, Remarque?s novels are bound together through more
or less discrete similarities, often in relation to names. In Arc de Triomphe, Ravic?s real
name is Ludwig Fresenburg. This is likewise the name of Graeber?s comrade in Zeit zu
leben. Moreover, they are both approximately forty years old. The two Fresenburgs
cannot, of course, be one and the same person, as Ravic would not have fought on the
side of the National Socialists.
53. Many parallels can be identified between Metelmann?s account and that of, not only
Graeber, but also B?umer. At the sight of a dead enemy soldier, for instance,
Metelmann?s reaction is not dissimilar to that of B?umer?s in Im Westen: ?His helmet
had rolled away from his head and he seemed to be gripping into the earth with both his
hands. In death his face had no enemy look about it. I could not keep my eyes off him,
and wondered what kind of a man he had been, how he had earned his bread, had he a
wife, parents or children?? Henry Metelmann, Through Hell for Hitler: A Dramatic
First-Hand Account of Fighting on the Eastern Front with the Wehrmacht ([1990]
Staplehurst: Spellmount, 2001), p. 62. Following a shift on guard, Metelmann even tells
his successor: ?[?] all was quiet on the Eastern Front?. Metelmann, Through Hell for
Hitler, p. 137.
54. Presumanly on the basis of this aspect of the novel, one of the early manuscripts of
Zeit zu leben has the different title of Insel der Hoffning; a title which has been
preserved in the French translation L??le d?Esp?rance. Schneider, ??Und Befehl ist
Befehl. Oder nicht???, p. 234.
55. Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels, p. 172.
56. For the structure of Zeit zu leben, see also: Schneider, ??Und Befehl ist Befehl. Oder
nicht???, p. 235.
237
57. Nienaber likewise comments on this message in Zeit zu leben: ?Wo sich die
Menschen aus ihrer moralischen Verantwortung f?r den Zustand der Gesellschaft
zur?ckziehen, um durch ein Lebensmodell aus Privatismus und Familie die Sicherung
der eigenen Existenz zu gew?hrleisten, deckt der Text diese Praxis als Schuld auf, weil
sie Barbarei m?glich macht. Da der Mensch als das Subjekt der Geschichte den Verlauf
des historischen Prozesses bestimmt, ist auch das Unterlassen von Handlungen
geschichtlich wirksame Praxis?. Bernhard Nienaber, ?Der Blick zur?ck: Remarques
Romane gegen die Adenauer-Restauration?, in Erich Maria Remarque 1898-1970,
edited by Tilman Westphalen (Bramsche: Rasch, 1988), pp. 79-93 (p. 87).
58. The only leitmotif in Zeit zu leben which has generally attracted the attention of
literary critics is that of blue eyes. At both the opening and conclusion of the novel,
Graeber is transfixed by the bright blue eyes of a Russian, suspected partisan.
Recognizing the humanness behind the eyes makes it all the more difficult for Graeber
to accept the order to execute the suspects. Moreover, at home, Graeber notices that
both his former teacher, Pohlmann, but also a civil cervant who shows only kindness
towards Elisabeth and Graeber, have similar blue eyes. In his mind, Graeber therefore
draws a parallel between the latter two and the Russian victims. Through his positive
impression of Pohlmann and the German official, Graeber comes to associate bright
blue eyes with benevolence. This, of course, also affects Graeber?s perception of the
supposed enemy and leads him to question further the righteousness of his loyalty to the
regime.
59. Im Westen depicts a similar episode during which B?umer, having changed into
civilian clothing, explores his own reflection in a mirror. Like Graeber, he finds it
difficult to combine the boyish exterior with the aged soldier inside: ?Ich betrachte mich
im Spiegel. Das ist ein sonderbare Anblick. Ein sonnenverbrannter, etwas
ausgewachsener Konfirmand sieht mich da verwundert an? (Im Westen, p. 116).
60. Graeber parallelizes the human and the arboreous species on other occasions. At the
sight of a damaged tree which stands in full bloom (despite a broken trunk and the fact
that its roots have been partly torn) Graeber states: ?Sie [die B?ume] geben uns Lehren.
Heute Nachmittag war es eine Linde, jetzt ist es dieser. Sie wachsen und treiben Bl?tter
und Bl?ten, und selbst wenn sie zerrissen sind, treibt der Teil weiter, den noch ein St?ck
Wurzel im Boden halt? (Zeit zu leben, p. 204). On a later occasion, the sight of the
limetree again infuses Graeber with a strong sense of being alive: ?Er sah die Linde
dunkel vor dem zerst?rten Hause aufragen, und pl?tzlich f?hlte er seine Schultern und
seine Muskeln und dasselbe starke Lebensgef?hl, das er das erste Mal gesp?rt hatte, als
er sie gesehen hatte? (Zeit zu leben, p. 265). The conclusion of Der Weg, of course, also
applies the image of trees/ wood figuratively as a means to convey the mental state of
the protagonist (Der Weg, pp. 311-12).
61. Remarque?s film script, Der letzte Akt, and his play, Die letzte Station, both from the
1950s, stand in a similar perspectival relationship of opposition to one another as do
Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben. Der letzte Akt describes the concluding ten days of
Hitler?s life, and it hence depicts the collapse of the regime from the perspective of the
Nazis. Die letzte Station, on the contrary, revolves around an escaped concentration
camp prisoner during the last few days of the war.
238
62. At the end of the novel, the reader is left to speculate whether or not Elisabeth is
pregnant, and she therefore plays an important role thematically. Elisabeth?s possible
pregnancy leads to the question of the future of the child and his or her position, later in
life, to the actions of the father. Stylistically, however, Elisabeth?s character is not
especially striking. This is not least because, from Chapter Three, the narrative is
focalized through Graeber, and the formal elements therefore mostly reflect back on his
character.
63. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 75, 80.
64. Repgow, ?Wir haben nicht auf Herrn Remarque gewartet! Wer es nicht erlebte,
sollte besser dar?ber schweigen?, Sonntagsblatt. Hannover, 42, 1952, no page.
65. Repgow, ?Wir haben nicht auf Herrn Remarque gewartet!?, Sonntagsblatt.
Hannover.
66. H.H., ?Der Funke Leben. Ein neuer Roman von Remarque?, Westdeutsche Zeitung,
252, 30 October, 1952, no page.
67. Schneider, ??Ein ekler Leichenwurm??, p. 53.
68. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen, Erich Maria Remarque: Werke der
fr?hen f?nfziger Jahre. Der Funke Leben, Zeit zu leben und Zeit zu sterben, Die letzte
Station. Bibliographie der Drucke, edited by Claudia Glunz (Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1995),
p. 7.
69. H.H., ?Der Funke Leben. Ein neuer Roman von Remarque?, Westdeutsche Zeitung.
70. Anke Zimmer, ?Seine verbale Spitzen gegen Autoren, Verleger und Kritiker sitzen.
Ein Gespr?ch mit Edgar Hilsenrath: ?Reich-Ranicki ist ein Idiot?, Fuldaer Zeitung, 23
September 1999, no page.
71. Nusser, Trivialliteratur, p. 6.
239
                                       Chapter 5
                              Der schwarze Obelisk and
                      Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge
  Remarque had worked on Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben as two parallel novel
projects. During the production of these two works, the author became acquainted with
the reputable psychoanalyst, Karen Horney, and as Remarque?s diaries from this period
suggest, consultations with her led to considerable personal development for
Remarque.
1
 However, also professionally, the 1950s became a time of transition and
exploration of new avenues for the author. Whereas the Hauptwerk had thus far
emerged in historically chronological order ? treating initially the topic of the Great
War; then the interwar years and the exile experience; and, finally, the Second World
War ? Remarque?s next two novels, Der schwarze Obelisk and Der Himmel kennt keine
G?nstlinge, would revert to past themes and recycle plot ideas conceived decades
earlier.
  Since writing Im Westen in the late 1920s, Remarque had, with only few exceptions,
favoured the novel as his medium. However, as his diaries from the early 1950s
disclose, the emotional stability Remarque acquired during this period of introspection
resulted in an increased level of creational motivation and a wish to venture into and
explore other aspects of the literary arena. Whereas the diary entries from the late 1940s
are characterized by Remarque?s admissions to work apathy and subsequent
exclamations of self-reproach, the overall tone changes in the early 1950s:
Der Wunsch, anders zu schreiben. Sich zu teilen: das
dramatische in St?cke zu tun, ? die Romane epischer zu
240
machen. Der Stil Thornton Wilders f?r Romane, ?
zusammenfa?ender, beschreibender, weniger Szenenfolge
als ?berschau, ? der Erz?hler starker f?hlbar, nicht
unsichtbar, wie bis jetzt ? und das, was nicht daf?r
gebraucht wird, in B?hnenst?cken austoben. Was im
Roman (bei mir) wie Sensationalismus wirkt, wird auf der
B?hne Kraft. Experimentieren!
2
   As a step towards adopting a more overt political stance, Remarque had already
temporarily deviated from his role as a novelist in the later war years. In 1944 on
request of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), he had outlined a possible strategy for
regeneration and re-education in Germany following the war. The text was entitled
Practical Educational Work in Germany after the War and explored some of the themes
? Nazism, nationalism and militarism ? which would also come to dominate
Remarque?s Second World War novels.
3
 The author?s engagement with literary genres
other than the novel nonetheless remained limited until the mid-1950s when his interest
in other media became more marked.
4
  During the 1950s, Remarque explored the spheres of both film and theatre. He drafted,
for instance, the initial script to a film adaptation of Judge Michael Musmanno?s work,
Ten Days to Die (Der letzte Akt).
5
 The film, completed in 1955, played in as many as
fifty-two countries, and thus became the most successful post-war film produced in
German.
6
 Depicting Hitler?s last days and eventual suicide in the bunker under the
Reichskanzlei in Berlin, the film concludes with the warning: ?Be Vigilant?.
7
 Despite a
lack of concrete information, Remarque is furthermore believed to have been involved
in the production of films such as From Here to Eternity (1953); On the Beach (1959);
The Guns of Navarone (1961) and Judgement at Nuremberg (1961).
8
  In addition to
these activities, Remarque accepted the role of Pohlmann in the 1958 film adaptation of
Zeit zu leben.
241
  The 1950s were an equally prolific decade for Remarque in relation to drama. In 1956
he produced the play Die letzte Station in which he again addressed the issue of the
Second World War.
9
 In West-Germany, the reviews were cautiously modest and Die
letzte Station subsequently soon disappeared again from the German stage. In
comparison, the play gained such popularity in the former Soviet Union that it ran for
thirteen consecutive years in Moscow. It was likewise shown over lengthier periods of
time in both Poland and the former Czechoslovakia.
10
 Although only staged
posthumously by the Probeb?hne in Osnabr?ck in 1988, parallel to Die letzte Station,
Remarque further wrote the play Die Heimkehr des Enoch J. Jones.
11
 Also from the
1950s are the plays La Barcarole and Brunnenstra?e, of which the latter was staged by
the Probeb?hne in 1991.
12
  Considering this expansion to Remarque?s area of creativity, it is perhaps not
surprising that also the novel-projects initiated in this decade, Der schwarze Obelisk and
Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge, should deviate from the previous pattern of
compliance with historical chronology. Indeed, a certain correlation seems to exist
between Remarque?s delving into the past as part of his psychoanalytic treatment, and
the novels he produced during this period. As the diaries show, the sessions with Karen
Horney involved analysis of memories from both Remarque?s childhood and youth
years;
13
 a reversion to past times which is comparably matched in the author?s
resumption of earlier themes in both Obelisk and Der Himmel. Thus, despite the fact
that Obelisk and Der Himmel are dissimilar in both content and form, they are
nonetheless related through their time of production, their mutual resumption of old
themes and the fact that they essentially bring an end to the otherwise logical sequence
which had thus far characterized Remarque?s Hauptwerk. In addition, Obelisk and Der
Himmel both occupy isolated positions within the framework of the Hauptwerk, in the
242
fact that neither of the novels form part of a novel-pair. Such a pattern governs
Remarque?s other works. Im Westen, Der Weg and Kameraden thus comprise a subtle
First World War-trilogy; Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe complement one
another in depicting the exile experience; and Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben present the
Second World War from two different angles: that of the prosecuted and that of the
prosecutor. Remarque?s last two novels which will be treated in the next chapter
likewise form a pair. In these works the focus is on the ?migr?s as they are forced to
leave Europe (Die Nacht von Lissabon) and take refuge in America (Schatten im
Paradies). Viewed in the context of Remarque?s otherwise thematically arranged novel-
pairs, Obelisk and Der Himmel differ through their lack of sequential relations to any of
the other works. Despite their intrinsic differences, these two novels will therefore be
treated together in this chapter as Remarque?s two free-standing and somewhat
deviating novels.
  A number of critics would contest the assertion that Obelisk is free-standing within the
framework of the Hauptwerk. This work has, for instance, regularly been interpreted in
conjunction with the First World War novels.
14
 Other critics, however, have placed it in
the context of Remarque?s books on the Second World War.
15
 There is an argument for
either categorization. The case for drawing parallels between Obelisk and the First
World War novels rests on the numerousness of both thematic and formal similarities
between them. In Obelisk, Remarque not only reverts to the first-person narrative which
he had otherwise abandoned following Kameraden; the Ich-Erz?hler, Bodmer, also
shares a number of properties with the previous protagonists B?umer, Birkholz and
Lohkamp. Similarly to the former two, Bodmer, has the initial ?B?, and the second
syllable of his name is identical to that of B?umer. The common aspect of the naming of
the protagonists is, however, but one of a number of similarities which bind the novels
243
loosely, but unambiguously, together. Both Der Weg and Obelisk incorporate, for
example, a character named Willy Ho(h)meyer.
16
 Both novels describe him as having
bright, red hair and as being of the same age as the protagonist. In addition, he is said to
be a former school friend and war comrade of both Birkholz and Bodmer, respectively.
Due to the fictitiousness, it is perfectly possible that a character named Willy
Ho(h)meyer should be a childhood friend and war-comrade of both Bodmer and
Birkholz, and that the existences of the latter two should nonetheless seem to be
unconnected.
The chief link between Obelisk and the three early First World War novels is, of
course, constituted by the protagonists? shared experience of the Great War. Also, they
all develop a pacifist point-of-view as a result. In these four novels ? Im Westen, Der
Weg, Kameraden and Obelisk ? the reality of war and its consequences are at the centre
of the plots. Yet, one vital factor separates Obelisk from Remarque?s early First World
War novels: Obelisk is narrated with the Second World War in hindsight, and it is this
differentiation which has led to the other classification of Obelisk as a sequence to
Funke Leben and Zeit zu leben. In order to fully appreciate the impact of the narrator?s
hindsight in Obelisk, the novel?s structure need first be examined.
 Obelisk consists of a prologue, followed by twenty-six chapters of more or less equal
length. Although the prologue and the main story are both presented in the first person,
they are narrated from two different points in time. The introductory statement shows
knowledge of the Second World War. It states, for example, its intention to take the
reader back to a time when the narrator believed, ?da? ein Krieg genug Belehrung sein
m?sse f?r eine Generation? (Obelisk, p. 9). This statement must therefore succeed, at
least, the outbreak of the Second World War. The opening chapter thus proceeds to
depict the narrator?s experience of German society in the year of 1923. Chapters one to
244
twenty-five are entirely concerned with the period from April to December of that year.
However, in chapter twenty-six, the narrator returns to the post-war point in time from
which he also related the prologue. This is revealed to be ?zehn Jahre nach dem
Zusammenbruch der Nazis?, i.e. the year of 1955. This closing chapter summarizes the
effects which Nazism came to exercise on a number of the novel?s characters. Together
with the prologue, chapter twenty-six thus functions as a epilogue and forms a time-
frame within which the actual story ? Bodmer?s experiences in 1923 ? is set.
17
  The connection between the introductory statement and the concluding chapter in
Obelisk adds clarification as to the time of the former. As stated above, the exordial
words indicate that the narrator is speaking in retrospect of the Second World War, but
the time is not specified further. However, in the light of the time-frame which the
prologue and chapter twenty-six form in unison, it must be presumed that the
identification, in the closing chapter, of the year as 1955 is equally applicable to the
prologue.
  A similar line of argument can be used to establish the identity of the, initially,
unidentifiable first-person narrator in the exordium. The link between chapter twenty-
six and the prologue inevitably influences the perspective from which also the latter is
read. Whereas chapter twenty-six is unambiguously narrated from the perspective of
Bodmer, the prologue initially resembles an authorial declaration:
Scheltet nicht, wenn ich einmal von alten Zeiten rede. Die
Welt liegt wieder im fahlen Licht der Apokalypse, der
Geruch des Blutes und der Staub der letzten Zerst?rung
sind noch nicht verflogen, und schon arbeiten
Laboratorien und Fabriken aufs neue mit Hochdruck
daran, den Frieden zu erhalten durch die Erfindung von
Waffen, mit denen man den ganzen Erdball sprengen
kann.?
Den Frieden der Welt! Nie ist mehr dar?ber geredet und
nie weniger daf?r getan worden als in unserer Zeit; nie hat
245
es mehr falsche Propheten gegeben, nie mehr L?gen, nie
mehr Tod, nie mehr Zerst?rung und nie mehr Tr?nen als
in unserem Jahrhundert, dem zwanzigsten, dem des
Fortschritts, der Technik, der Zivilisation, der
Massenkultur und des Massenmordens.?
Darum schelte nicht, wenn ich einmal zur?ckgehe zu den
sagenhaften Jahren, als die Hoffnung noch wie eine
Flagge ?ber uns wehte und wir an so verd?chtige Dinge
glaubten wie Menschlichkeit, Gerechtigkeit, Toleranz ?
und auch daran, da? ein Weltkrieg genug Belehrung sein
m?sse f?r eine Generation.? (Obelisk, p. 9).
   The use of the first-person perspective and the direct address of the reader create
thought associations to the opening statement of Im Westen. They also give the
impression of an authorial statement. Yet, given the thematic connection between the
prologue and chapter twenty-six, the narrator of the prologue can only be interpreted as
being Bodmer too.
  Without the framework, Obelisk would have been a novel depicting solely the
aftermath of the First World War.
18
 However, the framework alters the work?s overall
message considerably. It confirms the narrator-present to be 1955 and thereby gives this
work an added dimension which the early First World War novels necessarily lacked.
Placke has pointed to Martin Walser?s cryptic description of the relationship between
perspective and the passing of time as showing the impact this can have on the
presentation of events.
[S]olange etwas ist, ist es nicht das, was es gewesen sein
wird. Wenn etwas vorbei ist, ist man nicht mehr der, dem
es passierte. Als das war, von dem wir jetzt sagen, das es
gewesen sei, haben wir nicht gewu?t, das es ist. Jetzt
sagen wir, da? es so und so gewesen sei, obwohl wir
damals, als es war, nicht von dem wu?ten, was wir jetzt
sagen.
19
246
   Whereas Im Westen, Der Weg and Kameraden were written without realization as to
the historical development under Hitler?s rule, Obelisk depicts the 1920s with the
Second World War in retrospect. Walser?s words explain why this would affect the
narrative. Published in 1956, Obelisk was therefore not only written in knowledge of the
outcome of Nazism, but was also intended to be read with this in mind. Pointing to the
increased acceptance towards political radicalism during the Weimar years, Remarque
requests the reader to consider the elements which contributed to Hitler?s assumption of
power and allowed the Second World War to eventually take place. Observing, in the
mid-1950s, the intensifying Cold War and Germany?s inconsequent manner of dealing
with its Nazi past, Remarque thus uses Obelisk as a means of calling for vigilance, so as
to avoid a possible third world war. Despite essentially depicting the early Weimar
years, Obelisk can therefore nonetheless be classified also as a Second World War
novel. It is exactly this duality of Obelisk that distinguishes this work from the rest of
the Hauptwerk and justifies its labelling as one of Remarque?s deviating novels.
  One aspect which clearly distinguishes Obelisk from Remarque?s earlier novels is its
particular utilization of time as part of its narrative technique. Whereas the previous
works all depict a single, limited period in the lives of each of the protagonists, Obelisk
essentially spans over more than three decades. As established above, the framework is
set in Bodmer?s present, 1955. The entire framed story, on the other hand, seemingly
constitutes an uninterrupted flashback. Although supposedly representing past events,
the flashback is narrated in the present tense. This gives the reader the impression of
witnessing the Weimar account directly through the eyes of the younger Bodmer.
  It might seem irrelevant whether the flashback presents the perspective of the older
Bodmer or his younger self; after all, in either case, the narrator would be one and the
same character. However, recalling Walser?s words on perspective and time, it is
247
evident that both elements exercise an influence on the contents of a story. Bodmer is
therefore likely to present and evaluate the same events differently at different times.
Whereas the older Bodmer views the year of 1923 with distance and considerable life-
experience, his younger equivalent necessarily lacks this added dimension in his
perception of that year.
  Despite the time-difference between the framework and the Weimar account,
Remarque narrates both of these in the present tense. Set in 1955, the introductory
statement and chapter twenty-six represent the present of both the author and the
narrator. Remarque?s reason for writing these parts of the novel in the present tense is
thus self-evident. With regards to the framed story, however, the purpose behind the
application of the present tense is not as obvious. In the opening sentence of the
prologue, a first-person narrator voices his intent to speak of the past: ?Scheltet nicht,
wenn ich einmal von alten Zeiten rede? (Obelisk, p. 9). It would therefore seem logical
to present the subsequent narrative in the preterite. However, as stated above, this is not
the case. As a result, the thirty-year time shift from the exordial statement to the
commencement of chapter one becomes almost visual, in the sense that it imitates the
manner in which films generally produce flashbacks. In the movies, unless accompanied
by a background narrator relating in the past tense, flashbacks are presented with the
same level of immediateness as the film-present. In both instances, the viewer believes
to take the role of a direct witness. Apart from the actual introduction and termination of
the individual flashback in a film, the presentation of the material gives no clear
indication as to whether the events unfolding are present or past. In literature, on the
other hand, the narrative tense might be utilized as an indicator and reminder to the
reader that a particular passage is a present or past occurrence. In Obelisk, however,
Remarque imitates the immediateness of a film-flashback.
248
  The framed story essentially constitutes the older Bodmer?s recollection of the events
of 1923. When his memories are nevertheless narrated in the present tense, this serves to
illustrate that the sentiments depicted were not characteristic only of the past. The
framework indeed emphasizes that patriotism and militarism are re-intensifying in the
1950s. Then, reverting to the Weimar years, Bodmer depicts similar tendencies in the
1920s. The present tense of the Weimar account therefore serves to communicate the
topicality of the Weimar period to the historical developments of the author-present.
20
  Whereas the first twenty-five chapters of Obelisk are narrated in the present tense, the
closing chapter switches noticeably to the preterite: ?Ich habe keinen von allen
wiedergesehen. Ich wollte ab und zu einmal zur?ckfahren, aber immer kam etwas
dazwischen, und ich glaubte, ich h?tte noch Zeit genug, aber pl?tzlich war keine Zeit
mehr da. Die Nacht brach ?ber Deutschland herein, ich verlie? es, und als ich
wiederkam, lag es in Tr?mmern? (Obelisk, p. 392). The narrative has shifted from 1923
to ?zehn Jahre nach dem Zusammenbruch der Nazis? (Obelisk, p. 393). Following this
leap in time, the pace of the narrative escalates, as Bodmer, in less than three pages,
summarizes the effects National Socialism came to have on a number of the novel?s
characters. He does, however, evade details as to his own life following the year of
1923, and discloses merely that he left Germany during the National Socialist period.
His close friends, Georg Kroll and Willy Hohmeyer, are likewise mentioned only
succinctly: ?Watzek lie? Georg in ein Konzentrationslager sperren, obschon er schon
f?nf Jahre vorher von Lisa geschieden worden war. Ein paar Monate sp?ter war Georg
tot? (Obelisk, p. 392). ?Willy fiel 1942? (Obelisk, p. 393). In comparison, the lives of
those of the characters who came to sympathize with Hitler?s regime are depicted more
elaborately. About the aspiring poet, Hans Hungermann, for example, Bodmer reports:
249
Hans Hungermann wurde Kulturwart und
Obersturmbannf?hrer der neuen Partei. Er feierte sie in
gl?henden Versen und hatte deshalb nach 1945 etwas
Sorgen, da er seine Position als Schuldirektor verlor ?
inzwischen sind aber seine Pensionsanspr?che vom Staat
l?ngst anerkannt worden, und er lebt, wie unz?hlige
andere Parteigenossen, sehr behaglich davon, ohne
arbeiten zu m?ssen (Obelisk, p. 392).
  Bodmer?s preoccupation in the epilogue with those of his characters who embraced
Nazism unveils the actual theme of the novel. Hence, although focusing on Bodmer,
Obelisk is predominantly about the elements in society which allowed National
Socialism to prosper.
  Even though the framed story is related in the present tense, there are indicators
throughout the Weimar account of retrospection. Anachronism constitutes the most
obvious marker, and occurs on a number of occasions. A commonly noted anachronism
revolves around a speech by Hitler which one of the novel?s characters, Watzek,
allegedly listens to on a ?Sechsr?hrenapparat? (Obelisk, p. 144). This type of radio-
apparatus was, however, not on sale in Germany until 1925.
21
 Moreover, the first
political speech to be broadcast on the radio was delivered by Streseman in 1926, three
years after Watzek supposedly heard Hitler?s oration.
22
 Another anachronism consists of
the reference to I.G. Farben. This conglomerate was, in fact, not founded until 1925.
23
  Despite their number, the anachronisms in Obelisk have largely been overlooked by
critics. Wagener even comments on the novel?s ?historically accurate background?.
24
Schwindt and Westphalen, however, note the incongruence between dates and events,
and argue that the frequency of anachronistic elements points to their inclusion being
deliberate and part of Remarque?s overall narrative strategy in Obelisk.
25
 Placke takes a
similar stance. He perceives the anachronisms as constituting ?eine Textstrategie [?],
die darauf abzielt, durch diese Anspielungen [auf die Geschichte Deutschlands von
250
1923 bis 1955] im Bewu?tsein der origin?ren Leserschaft Resonanzen herzurufen.
Diese resultieren aus der Tatsache, da? diese Leserschaft wie der Autor wei?, wohin die
politische Entwicklung gef?hrt hat?.
26
 Although easily overlooked by today?s reader, the
anachronisms would have been more visible to Remarque?s initial target group: the
reader of the 1950s and especially those who had lived through both world wars.
Remarque generally researched historical facts thoroughly for his novels, and the
anachronisms are thus too numerous to be explained as accidental. They must have been
incorporated for a purpose. They allude almost exclusively to the National Socialist rule
which should later follow, and thus function as markers of the particular political
developments and the attitudes in German society during the Weimar period which
eventually allowed for Hitler?s autocracy to become a reality.
In addition to the overt anachronisms above, Obelisk occasionally plays on words to
allude to events which would take place after 1923: One such example is the
abbreviation S. S. which describes the granite (?schwarz? and ?schwedisch?) from which
the obelisk is made. The initials are, of course, a play on the shortened form of the
Schutzstaffel, the SS, which was not founded until 1925. Another anachronistic
abbreviation is constituted by the word, Nazi.
27
In Obelisk, the time difference between the framework and the framed story becomes
an added variable to consider in a formal analysis. It is, for instance, difficult to
determine whether the register, the imagery and the tone of the Weimar account reflect
the characteristics of the younger Bodmer as he was in 1923, or the older Bodmer
whose memory the story essentially constitutes.
  There are certain aspects of the register which clearly suggests that the events of 1923
are viewed from the perspective of the young Bodmer. As a recent, active soldier, the
vernacular slang alluded to in Im Westen and applied by Birkholz and Lohkamp in Der
251
Weg and Kameraden recurs in Obelisk. Bodmer?s existence is thus depicted using
vocabulary and phrases such as: ?fressen?; ?Pratzen?; ?alter Knacker?; ?den Schnabel
halten? and ?pissen? (Obelisk, pp. 26, 60, 62, 65, 174). It is, of course, possible that the
older Bodmer?s language is characterized by a similar colloquial tone. However, the
framework is characterized by a high level of formality and is devoid of the jargon
found throughout the 1923 account. In addition to an effective reiteration of ?nie?, the
introduction includes lofty formulations and statements such as: ?im fahlen Licht der
Apokalypse?; ?der Geruch des Blutes und der Staub der letzten Zerst?rung sind noch
nicht verflogen?; and ?als die Hoffnung noch wie eine Flagge ?ber uns wehte? (Obelisk,
p. 9). Although the tone is less elevated in the epilogue, the concluding pages are free of
the slang used in the framed story.
  In addition to the register, imagery likewise appears to reflect the mind of the younger
Bodmer in the 1923 story. As the Weimar account is set only a few years after the Great
War, and during the period of escalating inflation-rates, these two issues are central to
Weimar society and to the life of the young narrator. The abundance to similes relating
to war or inflation therefore gives the impression that the perspective is that of the
young Bodmer: ?als z?ge er in die Schlacht?, ?wie eine Granate?, ?wie ein Feldherr? and
?wie ein erschrecktes Pferd bei einem schwerem Granateinschlag?(Obelisk, pp. 155,
283, 138, 266). Although descriptively ineffective, the simile-vehicles revolving around
the topic of inflation are humorously unconventional: ?Der Winde ist milde und so
sanft, als w?re der Dollar gestern um zweihundertf?nfzigtausend Mark gefallen und
nicht gestiegen?; ?[p]l?tzlich ist alles weit weg. Es ist so weit weg wie die Inflation, die
vor zwei Wochen gestorben ist? (Obelisk, pp. 239, 378).
  As shown above, the present tense of the framed story and the use of language and
similes relating to that historical period, create the overall impression that events are
252
viewed through the eyes of the young Bodmer. It can, nevertheless, be argued that the
perspective must be that of the older Bodmer, since the Weimar account is the product
of his memory. It is, in fact, impossible to clearly separate the two perspectives; not
least because they are divided by time only. This intertwining of Bodmer?s past and
present self is part of Remarque?s narrative strategy. The inseparable voices of the
younger and the older Bodmer, stretching essentially over more than three decades,
serve to diminish the time-gap between the 1920s and the 1950s. The topicality of
Remarque?s Weimar story to the 1950?s political climate is thereby emphasized again.
  The point-of-view does occasionally exceed that of both the younger and the older
Bodmer. ?D?bbeling w?re es lieber gewesen, keiner von uns w?re erschienen?; ?Eduard
l?chelt, weil er glaubt, eine Flasche gespart zu haben?; ?Heinrich ist verbl?fft. So leicht
hat er sich das nicht gedacht? [my emphases] (Obelisk, pp. 121, 206, 298). Many similar
examples of apparent incongruence with Bodmer?s perspective (young or older) can be
found in Obelisk. However, in colloquial discourse when conveying past events, it is not
uncommon to present an interpretation of other people?s statements or behaviour as
factual. This is exemplified well in the following excerpt from Obelisk. The inclusion of
the personal pronouns ?mir? and ?uns? corroborates that the perspective is that of
Bodmer, despite the fact that it appears to be focalized through another character, a
waiter. In the passage quoted, Bodmer and one of the female characters, Gerda, are
dining in Eduard Knobloch?s hotel, Walhalla. Knobloch dislikes Bodmer because he
possesses a large number of valid meal tickets which he acquired prior to the inflation.
As prices rocket and Bodmer continues to use the tickets, he receives the meals more or
less free:
Der ehemalige Gefreite [der Kellner] wei? nicht, was er
machen soll. Er hat den Befehl von Eduard erhalten,
253
Gerda ein gener?ses St?ck, mir aber ein Scheibchen zu
geben, und er hat ihn ausgef?hrt. Jetzt sieht er, da? das
Gegenteil daraus geworden ist, [Gerda has given Bodmer
the generously cut slice of meat] und er bricht nahezu
zusammen, da er auf einmal selbst die Verantwortung
daf?r ?bernehmen mu?, was er jetzt tun soll. Das ist in
unserm geliebten Vaterlande nicht beliebt [my emphases]
(Obelisk, p. 138).
  Although Bodmer cannot, of course, know of the inner turmoil experienced by the
waiter, the inclusion of the latter?s emotions does not make the narrative less
convincing. The accentuated personal pronouns clearly identify Bodmer as the narrator,
and the reader is therefore aware that the presentation of the waiter is based on
Bodmer?s interpretation of him. In addition, it should be noted that from his narrator-
present in 1955, Bodmer does not attempt to depict the individual characters from his
past with meticulous precision; rather, he aims to draw an overall picture of the
prevailing sentiments of the early Weimar years.
  The warning in the prologue against a possible third world war fought with mass-
destructive weapons is repeated in symbolic form in the object of the black obelisk,
which offers the novel its title. Chiselled in black granite, its colour signifies both
danger and death. Given the wording of the introductory statement, it is therefore
possible that Remarque perceived a visual resemblance between this monument and the
vertical dust cloud following an atomic explosion. Such a reading is, in fact, depicted
graphically in the materials from a Remarque-project which took place at Osnabr?ck
University in 1984. The project which eventually led to the staging of a play based on
Obelisk contains, for instance, a sequence of drafts of the theatre poster which was to
advertise the production. One draft is particularly effective in conveying both the theme
of National Socialism, but simultaneously also Remarque?s warning of future warfare
involving nuclear weapons. The poster shows, in Froschperspektiv, a black obelisk at
254
the pinnacle of which a swastika balances enclosed in a large circle. In its entirety, the
object assumes the abstract, but nonetheless recognizable, shape of a mushroom.
Tilman Westphalen has pointed to the various interpretations of the obelisk, but
concludes: ?Das R?tseln in der Kritik ?ber den Sinn des Obelisk-Symbols, soweit es
?berhaupt als solches zur Kenntniss gekommen wird, f?hrt zu keinen schl?ssigen
L?sungen?. Die Zitate lie?en sich in gro?er Vielfalt und Widerspr?chlichkeiten
erg?nzen?.
28
 The warning of atomic warfare is therefore only one of a number of
symbolic readings which can be attached to the obelisk. The monument is situated in the
garden of the stone masonry in which Bodmer is employed. Although believed to be
unsellable, the obelisk eventually comes to crown the grave of a prostitute, known as
?das eiserne Pferd?. Owing to the nature of her profession, but probably also to her
favoured use of long, black boots, her former colleagues conclude that the obelisk
would make a fitting gravestone: ?Eigentlich nicht schlecht f?r das Pferd? (Obelisk, p.
384). The monument therefore also functions as a classic phallic symbol.
  The speculations as to the ultimate meaning or purpose of the obelisk should, however,
equally consider that the black stone was not a figment of Remarque?s imagination. A
postcard sent to the author shows a photograph of just such a monument. The sender,
Hermann Vogt, was the owner of a stone masonry in Osnabr?ck at which Remarque had
been employed during the early 1920s. The accompanying message indicates that the
pictured obelisk was known to Remarque: ?Zur Erinnerung an den W?schepfahl?.
29
 It is
therefore possible that the idea of including the obelisk in the novel emerged before the
actual objects or concepts it supposedly symbolizes. Indeed, in an article from 1957
Remarque says:
I had been thinking about writing ?The Black Obelisk,?
about treating that early part of my life, for years [?]. I
255
wanted to write about Genevieve, the girl in the asylum.
[?] Then I gradually came to feel that I wanted to write
about all the other things at the same time ? the tombstone
business and so on [?].
30
  Although this does, of course, not invalidate the symbolism of the obelisk, it is
nonetheless an indicator that the various readings might not all be of profound
significance to the understanding of the novel.
  One further possible reading of the obelisk deserves mentioning.  It concerns the
concepts of nationalism and militarism. As Bodmer describes the garden of the
stonemasonry, he pictures the stones and monuments as follows:
Da stehen sie, angef?hrt wie eine Kompanie von einem
d?nnen Leutnant, von dem Obelisken Otto, der gleich
neben der T?r seinen Posten hat. Er ist das St?ck, das ich
Heinrich geraten habe zu verkaufen, das ?lteste Denkmal
der Firma, ihr Wahrzeichen und eine Monstrosit?t an
Geschmacklosigheit (Obelisk, p. 23).
   It is reported that the stone masonry has been in the Kroll-family for sixty years, i.e.
from the early 1860s. The obelisk would therefore have arrived in the Kroll?s garden at
the time of Bismarck?s endeavours to create a large, united Germany. The ?Obelisk
Otto? thus presumably alludes to this historical figure. By describing the monument as
?eine Monstrosit?t an Geschmacklosigheit?, Bodmer communicates his disagreement
not only with the concept of a politically dominating Germany, but also with the
achievement of a such through militarism and nationalistic sentiment.
  Having stood unsellable in the garden of the Krolls? stone masonry for six decades, the
history of the obelisk begins a new era, when it is sold off as a gravestone. The
changing circumstances for the obelisk are paralleled in the lives of the characters,
Isabelle and Bodmer, which likewise alter directions. The former, whose real name is
256
Genevi?ve Terhoven, has been diagnosed with schizophrenia and admitted to a mental
hospital which is situated on a hill at the outskirts of Bodmer?s hometown,
Werdenbr?ck.
31
 Employed to play the church organ in the institution on Sundays,
Bodmer encounters and falls in love with her as ?Isabelle?. Her illness, however, and the
unique logic which governs her thoughts give her an air of untouchability. As, at the end
of the novel, she is cured and discharged from the hospital, Bodmer?s associations with
Isabelle cease, as she resumes her real identity as Genevi?ve Terhoven.
  Prior to her cure, it is the thought-provoking notions which emerge from Isabelle?s
schizophrenic mind that especially catch Bodmer?s fascination: ?Dazu kam, da? oft eine
sonderbare Weisheit durch das schimmerte, was sie sagte; es war nur verschoben und
gab dann ?berraschend einen Fernblick frei, der einem das Herz klopfen lie? [?]?
(Obelisk, p. 48). The isolated and elevated position of the institution and the oracular
presentation of Isabelle create the impression of a realm of a higher insight and
spirituality.
Sie [die ?rzte] haben sie [Isabelle] zur Strecke gebracht.
Aber was ist es, das sie zur Strecke gebracht haben? denke
ich. Ist es vielleicht in jedem von uns, versch?ttet,
verborgen, und was ist es wirklich? [?] [I]st alles nur ein
bi?chen tiefgr?ndig scheinendes Durcheinander, eine
Verschiebung der Sinne, eine T?uschung, Unsinn, der wie
Tiefsinn aussieht, wie Wernicke [der Arzt] behauptet?
Aber warum habe ich es dann geliebt [?] [?] War es nicht
trotz Wernicke, als ob in einem geschlossenen Raum eine
T?r ge?ffnet worden w?re, und man h?tte Regen und
Blitze und Sterne gesehen? (Obelisk, pp. 352-53).
   This spiritual air surrounding Isabelle?s person and the hospital remains a reflection of
Bodmer?s perception of the place. The tranquil surroundings of the institution are of
great import to the development that Bodmer undergoes in the course of the novel.
257
Ich liebe den Park [des Hospitals], weil er still ist und
weil ich hier mit niemand ?ber Krieg, Politik und Inflation
zu reden brauche. Ich kann ruhig sitzen und so
altmodische Dinge tun wie auf den Wind lauschen, den
V?geln zuh?ren und das Licht beobachten, wie es durch
das helle Gr?n der Baumkronen filtert (Obelisk, p. 39).
    Isabelle?s illness is in itself of secondary import to the story. However, her character
has a positive influence on Bodmer?s self-exploration. Due to the schizophrenia, which
justifies Isabelle?s spontaneous philosophizing, the dialogues between her and Bodmer
are mostly confusing or even nonsensical. It is, nevertheless, this alternative logic of
Isabelle?s mind which triggers Bodmer to question the real world and his individual role
in it. Besides Isabelle, the hospital vicar, Bodendiek, and the doctor, Wernicke, who
represent the opposing camps of religion and science respectively, also stimulate
Bodmer?s introspective mode. The institution on the hill thus becomes a location to
which Bodmer retreats temporarily in order to consider life from a wider perspective,
away from earthly issues. It is with some justification that most general studies on
Remarque?s work note the parallelism between Obelisk and Thomas Mann?s Der
Zauberberg.
32
  In line with Remarque?s other novels, an important theme is, of course, the existence
of irrationality not only in Isabelle?s mind, but also in the real ? and supposedly rational
? world. Having participated in the Great War and experienced the inflation of the early
1920s, it is not surprising that Bodmer should juxtapose ordinary life with that of the
mental institution, and question the concept of madness. In conversation with Isabelle,
Bodmer almost airs his thoughts on this: ?Drau?en, bei den Verr?ckten, h?tte ich fast
gesagt [my emphasis]? (Obelisk, p. 84). A few pages later, he proceeds to exemplify the
senselessness of the allegedly rational world outside of the hospital: ?[I]ch h?tte damals
auch nie geglaubt, da? ich einmal Menschen t?ten und daf?r nicht aufgeh?ngt, sondern
258
dekoriert werden w?rde, und trotzdem ist es so gekommen? (Obelisk, p. 91). The
employment of oxymoron locally in the novel further suggests an underlying
irrationality in the prevailing and generally accepted values and way of life outside the
mental institution: ??Ich [Heinrich Kroll] habe das Kreuzdenkmal verkauft?, sagte er mit
gespielter Bescheidenheit, hinter der ein gewaltiger Triumph schweigend br?llt [my
emphasis]? (Obelisk, p. 18). Although this example shows the oxymoron used in a
trivial context, its paradoxical aspect creates the impression of incongruity in relation to
Heinrich?s character. He is, of course, later revealed to be a keen supporter of the far
right, and the illogical quality of the oxymoron thus projects onto also Heinrich?s
political conviction and suggests it to be equally irrational.
  Although Bodmer applies oxymoron largely to show the irrationality of the presumed
sane world, the contradictory figure of speech is not entirely excluded from depictions
of life also within the mental hospital. Hence, oxymoron is used in Bodmer?s
description of the ward with war-inflicted, psychological conditions:
Die Explosionen der Granaten sind immer noch in diesen
armen Ohren, die Augen spiegeln noch wie vor f?nf
Jahren das fassungslose Entsetzen, Bajonette bohren sich
ohne Unterla? weiter in weiche B?uche, Tanks zermalmen
jede Stunde schreiende Verwundete und pressen sie flach
wie Flundern, das Donnern der Schlacht, das Krachen der
Handgranaten, das Splittern der Sch?del, das R?hren der
Minen, das Ersticken in zusammenst?rzenden
Unterst?nden ist durch eine schreckliche schwarze Magie
hier pr?serviert worden und tobt nun schweigend in
diesem Pavillion zwischen Rosen und Sommer weiter [my
emphasis] (Obelisk, pp. 154-55).
   Even then, the target of criticism is found in the world outside the institution. Bodmer
does not suggest that the behaviour of these former soldiers is intrinsically irrational.
259
Rather, the senselessness is blamed on the concept of warfare and the elements in
society which allow or even promote its occurrence.
  Possibly as a result of his experiences in the war (and similarly to Birkholz and
Lohkamp in Der Weg and Kameraden), Bodmer finds himself at the opening of Obelisk
without direction or purpose in life. The effect of this on his psyche is conveyed most
clearly in the tonal difference between the passages of Bodmer?s direct speech, and
those dominated by his thoughts. The dialogues and descriptions of other characters are
mostly both humorous and light-hearted. This is exemplified, for instance, in Bodmer?s
depiction of his friend, Georg:
Georg Kroll ist knapp vierzig Jahre; aber sein Kopf gl?nzt
bereits wie die Kegelbahn im Gartenrestaurant Boll. Er
gl?nzt, seit ich ihn kenne, und das ist jetzt ?ber f?nf Jahre
her. Er gl?nzt so, da? im Sch?tzengraben, wo wir im
selben Regiment waren, ein  Extrabefehl bestand, da?
Georg auch bei ruhigster Front seinen Stahlhelm
aufbehalten m?sse ? so sehr h?tte seine Glatze selbst den
sanftm?tigsten Gegner verlockt, durch einen Schu?
festzustellen, ob sie ein riesiger Billardball sei oder nicht
(Obelisk, pp. 13-14).
   When Bodmer is alone, however, the tone of the narrative changes and reveals an
introspective and melancholic individual. In chapter two, for instance, Bodmer sits
alone in his room above the stone masonry. Having glanced at some poetry he
composed whilst in the army, he decides to take a stroll in the garden. There, he
suddenly hears the song of a thrush:
Sie jubelt und klagt und bewegt mir das Herz. [?] [E]s
schwemmt mich weg, es lockert alles auf, ich stehe auf
einmal hilflos und verloren da und wundere mich da? ich
nicht zerrei?e oder wie ein Ballon in den Abendhimmel
fliege, bis ich mich schlie?lich fasse und durch den Garten
und den Nachtgeruch zur?ckstolpere, die Treppe hinauf,
zum Klavier, und auf die Tasten haue und sie streichle
und versuche, auch so etwas wie eine Drossel zu sein, und
260
herauszuschmettern und zu beben, was ich f?hle [?]
(Obelisk, p. 35).
  The previously colloquial and light-hearted tone of the description of Georg has
switched to reveal a voice in Bodmer which is both sentimental and poetic. This
impression is generated by the nature of both the content and the language. In the course
of the novel, the latter is indeed adorned by aestheticizing elements almost exclusively
when Bodmer is alone. Remarque thereby allows the reader to see a vulnerable aspect to
Bodmer?s character which is otherwise hidden from his surroundings. In his description
of the hospital park, for instance, Bodmer poeticizes the language through alliteration:
?Nach dem Fr?hst?ck gehe ich in den Park der Anstalt. Es ist ein sch?nes, weitl?ufiges
Gel?nde mit B?umen, Blumen und B?nken [?] [my emphases]? (Obelisk, p. 39).
  Another aestheticizing tool which Bodmer applies is that of reiteration. This particular
device is used as Bodmer, inspired by the singing thrush, attempts to express his
emotions through the piano:
Ich kann nicht richtig spielen, weder auf dem Klavier
noch auf dem Leben, nie, nie habe ich es gekonnt, immer
war ich zu hastig, immer zu ungeduldig, immer kam etwas
dazwischen, immer brach es ab ? aber wer kann schon
richtig spielen, und wenn er es kann, was n?tzt es ihm
dann? Ist das gro?e Dunkel darum weniger aussichtslos
[?] [my emphases]? (Obelisk, pp. 35-36).
   Aside from the reiteration of the antonyms ?nie? and ?immer?, texture is created by the
juxtaposition of the direct and the figurative use of the verb ?spielen? in relation to the
piano and life, respectively.
  The ?gro?e Dunkel? which Bodmer speaks of in the quotation above expresses not only
his depressive state of mind, but also that this revolves around a lack of belonging or
having a focal point. As shown in relation to Im Westen, Der Weg and Kameraden, a
261
similar void characterizes also the lives of the former soldiers in those novels. B?umer,
for instance, subconsciously attempts to create a focal point, by physically clinging to
things in the material world. In Obelisk, Bodmer?s sense of having been uprooted is
conveyed in a different way. In order to explain this, it is necessary first to contemplate
the two women in Bodmer?s life in the year of 1923.
As established above, Isabelle is depicted in an almost spiritual light, and Bodmer?s
attraction appears to be directed primarily at her mind. Barker and Last in fact claim the
bond between Bodmer and Isabelle to be ?far more spiritual than any other man-woman
relationship in Remarque?s work?.
33
 In his hometown, Werdenbr?ck, Bodmer then
encounters Gerda, who is the antithesis to Isabelle. She works as an acrobat, is
earthbound and uncomplicated. In contrast to his fascination with Isabelle?s intellect,
Bodmer?s attraction to Gerda is predominantly physical. Yet, despite the fact that these
two women are fundamentally dissimilar, neither of them constitutes a true focal point
in Bodmer?s life. In other words, neither of them fills the void or ?das gro?e Dunkel?
which Bodmer experiences. Separately, they each pose him the same question: ?Wo
warst du all die Zeit??; ?Wo bist du gewesen??; ?Wo warst du?? (Obelisk, pp. 41 (231),
84, 146). Bodmer?s answers are always vague: ?Irgendwo ? da drau?en ? ?; ?Drau?en,
irgendwo ? ?; ?Drau?en? ; ?Irgendwo? (Obelisk, pp. 41, 84, 146, 231). His reference to
both worlds as ?drau?en?, conveys his sensation of belonging in neither the physical
realm of Gerda, nor in the spiritual sphere of Isabelle.
  Bodmer?s search for a meaning to life is communicated through the number of
questions in his mind. The episode during which Bodmer plays the piano concludes in
precisely such a flow of questions:
[A]ber wer kann schon richtig spielen, und wenn er es
kann, was n?tzt es ihm dann? Ist das gro?e Dunkel darum
weniger aussichtslos, brennt die verzweiflung ?ber die
262
ewige Unzul?nglichkeit darum weniger schmerzhaft, und
ist das Leben dadurch jemals zu erkl?ren und zu fassen
und zu reiten wie ein zahmes Pferd, oder ist es immer wie
ein m?chtiges Segel im Sturm, das uns tr?gt und uns,
wenn wir es greifen wollen, ins Wasser fegt? Da ist
manchmal ein Loch vor mir, das scheint bis in den
Mittelpunkt der Erde zu reichen. Was f?llt es aus? Die
Sehnsucht? Die Verzweiflung? Ein Gl?ck?  Und welches?
Die M?digkeit? Die Resignation? Der Tod? Wozu lebe
ich? Ja, wozu lebe ich? (Obelisk, pp. 35-36).
    Similar passages of successive questions occur regularly throughout Obelisk. It is
therefore the absence of questions ? indeed, of any thought ? which eventually marks
the moment of closure for Bodmer. As Isabelle is cured and resumes her real identity of
Genevi?ve, Bodmer says goodbye to her in his mind. However, his words are equally
directed at his own person, as he realizes that he can let go of the past and overcome his
experience of the war:
Leb wohl, Isabelle! Du bist nicht ertrunken, ich wei? das
pl?tzlich. Du bist nicht untergegangen und nicht
gestorben! [?] [D]u bist immer da, und du wirst nie
untergehen, alles ist immer da, nichts geht jemals unter,
Licht und Schatten nur ziehen dar?ber hin, es ist immer
da, das Antlitz vor der Geburt und nach dem Tode, und
manchmal scheint es durch in dem, was wir f?r Leben
halten, und blendet uns eine Sekunde, und wir sind nie
ganz dieselben danach! (Obelisk, p. 353).
    Following this self-revelation, Bodmer?s reaction resembles that of B?umer,
following Kemmerich?s death. He runs down the hill towards the town and relishes in
the mere fact that he is alive. He then realizes: ?[E]s gibt keine Fragen und keine
Antworten mehr!? (Obelisk, p. 353). Isabelle?s recovery has brought also Bodmer a
sense of closure. Soon after, he leaves Werdenbr?ck to begin a new job in Berlin.
Sitting on the train, his thoughts wander to his experiences of 1923, and although the
year has been characterized by introspection, Bodmer finally breaks with the past:
263
?[Z]uletzt denke ich an gar nichts mehr? (Obelisk, p. 392). The Weimar account
concludes with this statement. Bodmer is no longer governed by the past, but travels to
Berlin to commence his ?versp?tete Jugend?.
34
  At this point in the novel, time advances to 1955. Bodmer summarizes the influence of
National Socialism on the people from his life of 1923. He proceeds to stress the extent
of material damage Germany suffered during the war. In Werdenbr?ck, only the mental
hospital and the adjacent building, a birth clinic, were left undamaged. In relation to the
former, Bodmer (and Remarque) thereby implies that the destruction exceeded the
visual scars. Indeed, an expansion of the mental institution proved necessary. Also the
birth clinic was expanded. In the light of the didactic undertones of the novel as a
whole, Bodmer (and, as above, Remarque) suggests that a new generation could provide
hope for the future ? if these people and the reader would only learn from the past. If
not ? the novel claims ? they will become the next generation of soldiers.
Remarque?s next novel, Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge, takes the reader to the
countries of Switzerland, France, Italy and the principality of Monaco. The work is set
in the year of 1950 and is, in addition to Obelisk, the only Remarque novel dealing with
the time following the Second World War. However, whereas the war is central to the
message of Obelisk, the historical setting plays merely a subordinate role in Der
Himmel.
 In this novel, Remarque distances himself from his otherwise favoured themes of war
and exile. Instead, he depicts a woman?s realization and gradual acceptance of being
terminally ill with tuberculosis. It is this temporary thematic shift as well as the
employment of a female protagonist which distinguish Der Himmel from the other
novels of the Hauptwerk.
264
  Despite the free-standing position of Der Himmel, there are certain links to the other
novels which cannot be overlooked. Lillian Dunkerque?s name constitutes the most
pronounced example. As shown in the Introduction of this thesis, the name features
several times and in a variety of spellings in Remarque?s collected works. In relation to
the plot, Der Himmel shares a number of common points particularly with Kameraden,
but also with the early novel, Station am Horizont; the short story, Das Rennen
Vanderveldes; and the film synopsis, The Other Love. These pieces all revolve around at
least one of the topics of cars, racing and tuberculosis. The similarities between Der
Himmel and Kameraden are especially plentiful and exceed the obvious connection
between Pat and Lillian through their incurable illness. In both works, for example, the
sanatoria are camouflaged to resemble hotels. This warped image is consciously upheld
by the hospital staff with a stubbornness that borders on dishonesty towards the patients.
The topic of death is shunned, as exemplified in the euphemistic use of ?abreisen? in
references to deceased patients (Der Himmel, pp. 48, 51, 87-88, 310; Kameraden, pp.
347-48). Another aspect which further links Der Himmel to Kameraden is the
zoomorphic depiction of the cars, Karl and Giuseppe. This was discussed also in chapter
two of this thesis, in which the likeness of the former to a loyal dog was highlighted. In
Der Himmel, Giuseppe is comparably described as ?ein alter L?we?, and the sound of
the car engine is subsequently termed ?Giuseppes Gebr?ll? (Der Himmel, p. 14). The
initial encounters between Lohkamp and Pat in Kameraden, and Clerfayt and Lillian in
Der Himmel, furthermore revolve around these two vehicles, and the cars therefore play
core roles in the plot development early on in the two novels.
35
  Station am Horizont and Das Rennen Vanderveldes are connected to Der Himmel
largely through their shared theme of car-racing. However, especially the former two
have striking similarities. Hence, the storyline of the short prose, Das Rennen
265
Vanderveldes, reappears in a barely revised version in Station am Horizont. One final
link to Der Himmel which has, however, largely been overlooked by literary critics is
that of the novel-fragment Gam. The lack of attention to this latter relationship must be
seen as a reflection of the fact that Gam remained unpublished until 1998. Only few
critics incorporate Gam in their studies on Remarque and his novels.
36
 Sternburg, 1998,
is the earliest example. He nevertheless fails to identify the correlation between this
early novel-fragment and the much later work, Der Himmel. However, when Sternburg
describes the character, Gam, as ?von der Sucht nach Leben getrieben?, this statement is
equally applicable to Lillian.
37
 In fact, in Der Himmel, an almost identical assertion is
made about latter: ?[S]ie war auf der Jagd nach dem Leben? (Der Himmel, p. 137).
Sternburg?s lack of recognition of the relationship between Lillian and Gam presumably
originates in his perception of the former as a typical Remarquean, female character. As
seen in the novels analysed thus far, the leading female characters of Remarque?s works
are rarely developed in depth. The distance between the reader and these characters is
partly caused by their depiction from an external perspective only.  The female
protagonist Gam, in the novel-fraction of the same name, is an exception. Her character
and viewpoint dominate the work, and Sternburg justly emphasizes her status as
?Titelheldin?. However, he places Lillian in the same category as Remarque?s standard
female characters; in the shadow of the male protagonists: [Die Frauen] erscheinen doch
letztlich nur als das gro?e Echo der Liebespassionen von Remarques m?nnlichen
Helden. ?Gam? aber erz?hlt der Autor fast vollst?ndig aus dem Blickwinkel der Frau?.
38
Sternburg?s line of reasoning is not infallible, as a careful examination of the narrative
perspective of Der Himmel will show.
Der Himmel is related in the third person, and has a perspectival structure comparable
to that of Liebe Deinen N?chsten. In the latter, the focus has been shown to switch
266
intermittently between the ?migr?s, Kern and Steiner. The examination of the narrative
perspective, however, led to the conclusion that Kern is the chief focalizer and, hence,
the protagonist. The composition of perspective and focus is similar in Der Himmel.
Throughout this novel the focal point alternates between the two characters of Lillian
and Clerfayt. The latter is a racing-driver with whom Lillian goes in search for life.
Notwithstanding the switching focus between these two characters, an analysis of the
space they each occupy in the story reveals that inequality also characterizes the
relationship between Lillian and Clerfayt. Whereas he figures in only approximately
half of the pages of the novel, Lillian is present almost throughout the work. An
assessment of the perspective shows a similar tendency. The amount of pages presented
from Lillian?s view far exceeds those which reflect the perspective of Clerfayt. Despite
the duality of the focus and the point-of-view, the disproportionate presence of the two
characters on the individual pages clearly suggests that Lillian is the actual central
figure in Der Himmel. Returning briefly to Sternburg?s claim that the character, Gam,
should be Remarque?s only female protagonist, it appears that the critic has overlooked
Lillian?s prevailing presence and viewpoint in Der Himmel. This is all the more
unfortunate since Sternburg?s argument for Gam?s distinctive status is based precisely
on her dominance of the narrative perspective.
39
 Having determined that Lillian constitutes the central element in Der Himmel, it can
be established that the novel is not primarily a depiction of the tragic love story between
Lillian and Clerfayt ? as has generally been suggested ? but rather that of Lillian?s love
for life, and her eventual recognition that heaven has no favourites.
  With Lillian at the core of the story, the function of Clerfayt?s character within the
narrative begs some consideration. Lillian?s ?Jagd nach dem Leben? (Himmel, p. 127)
would, for instance, have been equally conceivable without Clerfayt at her side. As the
267
novel stands, however, it is his arrival at the sanatorium which brings Lillian to consider
the possibility of stopping treatment and leaving the mountains. In Lillian?s view,
Clerfayt becomes a representative of freedom and of life away from the physical and
emotional confinement of the altitudinal sanatorium. The character of Clerfayt is
likewise at the centre of the plot when his sudden death brings the novel to its climax.
However, in addition to Clerfayt?s role in these key events locally in the work, he forms
? more importantly ? a contrast to Lillian and the Lebensphilosophie she adopts.
Clerfayt?s character becomes the main narrative tool utilized to show the difference
between Lillian?s outlook on life and that of the general population who live in relative
oblivion of their own mortality, a category, to which also Clerfayt belongs.
  Initially, it appears that Clerfayt and Lillian lead similar existences governed by
uncertainty. In this respect, Remarque remains partly loyal to his previous theme of
depicting circumstances which exceed the control of the individual victims. Lillian has
been diagnosed with terminal tuberculosis, and in his profession as a racing driver
Clerfayt too lives in relative proximity to personal extinction: ?Wir sind ja ?hnlich,
dachte sie [Lillian]. Wir haben ja beide keine Zukunft! Seine reicht immer nur bis zum
n?chsten Rennen; und meine bis zum n?chsten Blutsturz? (Der Himmel, p. 124). They
therefore share the aspect of racing against time ? he, in sports-competitions, she, with
regards to death. However, the fact that Clerfayt ultimately has a choice whether to race
of not, differentiates his situation entirely from that of both Lillian and many of the
characters in Remarque?s other novels.
It is the seeming lack of choice which affects Lillian?s state of mind prior to her
departure from the sanatorium. As the patients have to abide by the hospital rules and
follow the strict routine of treatment, the environment is shown to reduce their degree of
autonomy to that of children. A similar lack of control is said to also have characterized
268
Lillian?s existence before her admission to the sanatorium four years previously. Due to
the war, she and her family went into exile, and they subsequently had only little control
over the direction of their lives. As Lillian is only twenty-four years old, she would have
been a child when the war broke out. She would, at that stage, therefore still have been
governed by her parents. Into adulthood, however, her life has remained determined by
circumstances beyond her reach, and it is the anxiety that she might not live to
experience independence and a sense of control which is the key issue for Lillian and
the cause of her fear, at the opening of the novel.
 In this aspect, Lillian bears resemblance to Remarque?s earlier protagonist, Kai, in
Station am Horizont: ?Kai wurde unruhig; er empfand pl?tzlich, da? Minuten und
Sekunden seines Lebens ohne Wiederkehr versanken, w?hrend er hier mit halber
Teilnahme sa?; ? immerfort ging lautlos irgendwo der Strom der Zeit, r?tselhaft und
be?ngstigend in seinem unaufhaltsamem, schattenhaften Vergleiten, ohne Aufh?ren wie
ein unerbittliches Verbluten? (Station am Horizont, p. 8). The connection between the
latter statement and Lillian?s fear of experiencing a fatal haemorrhage should not be
overlooked.
  Lillian attempts to explain to a fellow patient, Boris Wolkow, her reason for wishing to
leave the hospital. However, she struggles to verbalize her emotions: ?Boris, es ist alles
falsch, was ich sage, es wird falsch, w?hrend ich es sage, die Worte sind falsch und
banal und sentimental und treffen es nicht [?]. [W]enn ich ehrlich sein will, und selbst
wenn ich glaube, ich sei ehrlich, bin ich es immer noch nicht, siehst du denn nicht, da?
ich es selbst nicht wei??? (Der Himmel, p. 102). Although, in the opening chapters,
Lillian is unable to define her fear of dying before having realized personal autonomy,
her anxiety is communicated indirectly by use of different narrative techniques. Hence,
269
despite the fact that she cannot explain her trepidation, this is conveyed to the reader in
other ways.
  One such technique consists of the utilization of light and darkness. The section set in
the sanatorium is, for example, noticeably prolific in references to the latter. This is
especially the case, when the narrative is focalized through the character of Lillian.
Darkness commonly functions as a symbol of danger and death, and its prominence in
Lillian?s perception of her surroundings therefore indicates her constant preoccupation
with her medical condition and the possibility of having a fatal haemorrhage.
Remarque?s conscious use of light and darkness, as expressive of Lillian?s emotions, is
exemplified in the following excerpt. Another young, female patient has passed away
and, wishing to say her goodbyes, Lillian enters the room in which the coffin and its
content await collection. The room is lit only by moonlight, and Lillian suddenly
imagines the possibility that the deceased might not be dead after all:
Konnte es nicht sein, da? Agnes Somerville jetzt, gerade
jetzt, in der engen Dunkelheit der raschelnden Seide zu
schreien versuchte, mit vertrockneter Kehle, ohne einen
Laut hervorbringen zu k?nnen? Ich bin verr?ckt, dachte
Lillian; was denke ich da? [?] Licht, dachte sie, ich mu?
Licht machen! Sie ging zur T?r zur?ck; aber pl?tzlich
blieb sie stehen und lauschte. Sie glaubte ein Knistern
geh?rt zu haben, sehr leise, aber deutlich, als kratzten
N?gel auf Seide. Rasch drehte sie den Schalter an. Das
scharfe Licht der ungesch?tzten Lampe an der Decke trieb
die Nacht, den Mond und das Entsetzen zur?ck. Ich h?re
Gespenster, dachte sie. Es war mein eigenes Kleid. Es
waren meine eigenen N?gel. Es war nicht ein m?der,
letzter Rest von Leben, der sich noch einmal geregt hat.
Sie starrte wieder auf den Sarg, der jetzt im grellen Licht
stand. Nein ? dieser schwarze, polierte Kasten mit den
Bronzegriffen enthielt kein Leben mehr. Im Gegenteil ? in
ihm war die finsterste Drohung eingeschlossen, die die
Menschheit kannte [my emphases] (Der Himmel, pp. 22-
23).
270
  Darkness and light are clearly used symbolically in this passage. Initially, the room is
lit only by the pallid light of the moon. Influenced by the atmosphere, Lillian envisages
the suffocating darkness inside the coffin, and she becomes aware of the fact that she
too is shrouded in the blackness of the night. As she imagines the revival of the dead
girl, the demarcation line between the realm of the living and that of the dead
diminishes. This impression is reinforced by the all-pervading darkness and its
traditional symbolic meaning of death and danger. Lillian consequently rushes to turn
on the light, so as to draw a clear boundary between her own person and that of the
deceased, and to thereby confirm, to herself, that she is indeed still alive. Through the
brightness of the light, the division between the dead and the living is restored, at least
temporarily. Towards the end of the quotation, Lillian seeks emotional refuge in the
light, which is described as both ?scharf? and ?grell?. The dead girl, on the other hand, is
confined to the coffin which (in contrast to the sharp light) is of black material and said
to conceal ?die finsterste Drohung?.
  The figurative property of light and darkness recurs on several occasions in the novel.
When Lillian departs from the sanatorium and emotionally ceases to live in the shadow
of her illness, the literal brightness of the light is used symbolically to reflect Lillian?s
state of mind:
Die Ausgangst?r war jetzt ganz nahe. Die Sonne blendete
von drau?en herein. Noch ein paar Schritte, dachte Lillian,
und das Spie?rutenlaufen ist zu Ende. Noch einen Schritt!
[?] Sie war drau?en. Der Schnee reflektierte das Licht so
stark, da? sie kaum sehen konnte. ?Auf Wiedersehn,
Hollmann!? ?Auf Wiedersehn, Lillian. Ich komme bald
nach.? Sie blickte auf. Er lachte. Gott sei Dank, dachte sie,
endlich kein Schulmeister (Der Himmel, p. 108).
271
Her sense of escaping is not expressed solely through the brightness of the light, but is
also underlined by the specific mention of the main entrance. The doorway thus comes
to mark the initial dividing point for Lillian between imprisonment and freedom; death
and life; helplessness and being in control.
40
 Leaving the sanatorium, Lillian experiences a sensation of being readmitted to, what
might be termed, the realm of the living. The psychological impact of physically
distancing herself from the world of the sanatorium culminates as she travels through
the Gotthard Tunnel. This part of the journey and its impact on Lillian is described
through parallel and partly overlapping symbolic images. Light and darkness are, for
example, again applied as illustrative of the concepts of life and death. The gloom of the
tunnel and the knowledge of being underground causes Lillian to long for light: ?Die
ferne Furcht jeder Kreatur, die auf dem Boden und nicht in ihm lebt, die Furcht,
begraben zu werden, lie? sie so heftig auf das Licht und auf den Himmel warten, da?
alles andere ausgel?scht wurde? (Der Himmel, p. 114). Nearing the end of the tunnel,
Lillian anticipates the escape from, not only the literal darkness of her immediate
surroundings, but also the figurative darkness of the sanatorium and death. The literal
light at the end of the tunnel not merely represents life. It also symbolizes the new and
unknown existence which she is about to commence. Clerfayt casually comments: ?Und
seit vier Jahren waren Sie nicht unten? Das ist dann ja fast so, als w?ren Sie noch
einmal geboren? (Der Himmel, pp. 115-16). The seemingly hyperbolic quality of his
statement is thus, at a conceptual level, more fitting than he realizes. Although focalized
through the character of Lillian, Remarque presents the latter part of the journey as a
metaphorical rebirth. Having already referred to the tunnel as ?der steinernen Bauch der
Erde? (Der Himmel, p. 114), Lillian?s experience suddenly assumes a striking
resemblance to the birth of a child ? visualized from the perspective of the latter:
272
Sie w?rde auf einem neuen Planeten auftauchen,
hinausgeworfen aus der Erde, st?rzend und gleichzeitig
vorw?rts geschleudert, ohne anderen Gedanken mehr als
den einen: hinauszukommen und zu atmen. Ihr war, als
w?rde sie in letzter Minute durch einen Grabesschlauch
gerissen, dessen W?nde dicht hinter ihr zusammenst?rzten
und sich versch?tteten, vorw?rts, dem Lichte zu, das
pl?tzlich wie eine milchige Monstranz vor ihr auftauchte,
auf sie zuraste und da war (Der Himmel, p. 115).
  The extensive application of symbolism in the episode of the Gotthard Tunnel serves
to stress the impact this short journey has on Lillian, her sensation of being reborn.
Whereas Clerfayt presumably finds the dark train ride tedious and a trivial occurrence ?
his perspective is not disclosed ? the journey touches Lillian spiritually, in that it
definitively transports her ? physically as well as mentally ? back to the world of the
living.
Since the journey through the Gotthard Tunnel signifies Lillian?s psychological
crossover from death to life, this episode appropriately also marks the introduction of
the extrinsic, thematic pattern of Ovid?s version of the story of Orpheus and Eurydice.
41
More than once, Lillian equates the drive through the tunnel with the crossing of the
Styx, the river which allegedly winds around Hades nine times: ?Der alte Planet, auf
dem das Sanatorium stand, blieb hinter ihr f?r immer; sie konnte nicht zur?ck, so wenig
man zweimal den Styx ?berqueren konnte?; ??ber den Styx geworfen und gerettet? (Der
Himmel, p. 115). The same episode also refers to another river, Acheron, which
likewise separates Hades from the world of the living: ?Der acherontische L?rm wurde
zu normalem Knattern und schwieg dann. Der Zug hielt in einem weichen Rauschen
von Grau und Gold und milder Luft. Es war die Luft des Lebens nach der
gew?lbekalten, toten Luft des Tunnels? (Der Himmel, p. 115). Through the application
of imagery relating to Greek mythology and especially to Hades, the Gotthard Tunnel
273
assumes the added symbolic meaning of the realm of death. It is not coincidental that
Remarque has chosen a tunnel (as opposed to a bridge, a valley or a national border) to
mark this point in Lillian?s mental transformation. Its physical attribute of travelling
underground is a key element in the overall metaphorical impact of this episode. Hence,
as Lillian?s train emerges from the darkness of the tunnel, her equation of this with an
ascension from the underworld becomes especially fitting.
  With reference to the central plot of Ovid?s narrative, Murdoch has noted its reflection
in Der Himmel.
42
 The similarities are mostly unambiguous, although the seemingly
differing conclusions of the two tales necessitate explanation. Although Clerfayt
initially retrieves Lillian from the world of the dead, he loses her again when he fails to
abide by the rules of their relationship. Lillian has explicitly communicated her wish to
remain free, and yet Clerfayt attempts to confine her through marriage. As a result, he
loses both Lillian and even his life. Although this development differs from the story of
Orpheus and Eurydice, the principle is similar. Orpheus too ignores the condition
attached to the retrieval of his loved one from Hades. He is prohibited from looking at
her until they reach the upper world. Orpheus is, however, incapable of resisting a quick
glance, and Eurydice immediately falls back to the underworld. Although, as Murdoch
notes, the parallels are not exact,
43
 the outcome of the two stories is related in as far as
Clerfayt and Orpheus fail to keep Lillian and Eurydice, respectively. Moreover, in both
cases the loss is the outcome of the man?s disregard or misjudgement of the
consequences of breaking the rules.
  The similarity between the story of Orpheus and Eurydice, and that of Clerfayt and
Lillian is not merely implied. A clear parallel is drawn by one of the characters, Levalli,
in Der Himmel. When Clerfayt explains, figuratively, that he met Lillian at the gateway
to Hades, Levalli comments:
274
Vor den Toren des Hades. Ich will sie nicht weiter fragen.
Es ist genug, um die Phantasie bl?hen zu lassen. In dem
grauen Zwielicht der Hoffnungslosigkeit, dem nur
Orpheus entrann. Aber selbst er mu?te den Preis zahlen:
doppelte Einsamkeit ? so paradox das auch klingt ? weil
er eine Frau as dem Hades zur?ckholen wollte. Sind Sie
bereit zu zahlen, Clerfayt? (Der Himmel, p. 182).
  Der Himmel contains many other, less specific, references to Greek mythology. These
occur predominantly when the narrative is focalized through Lillian, but, as the extract
above shows, they are by no means restricted to her person. The mythological
references do therefore not function as a means of conveying the characters? level of
education. Rather, they serve as a tool for the third-person narrator to create a
translucent, but continued, link between Der Himmel and Ovid?s depiction of
Eurydice?s failed attempt to return to life.
  Although the first implications of the story of Orpheus and Eurydice are not introduced
until the episode set in the Gotthard Tunnel (one third into the novel), the mythical tale
nonetheless functions as a thematic model for Der Himmel in its entirety. Remarque?s
novel commences and concludes in the sanatorium which is presented, metaphorically,
as a place of death. The fact that Lillian starts out and completes her short life of
independence in the sanatorium therefore mirrors the two deaths ? the first from a snake
bite; the second from Orpheus?s misdemeanour ? which Eurydice endures in the myth.
44
  It could be argued that an important factor differentiates the two characters of Lillian
and Eurydice, and their motion across the spheres of life and death. Whereas the latter
does not reach the ?upper world?
45
 before her husband?s disobedience of the gods forces
her to return to the underworld of Hades, Lillian successfully leaves the sanatorium,
passes through the Gotthard Tunnel and emerges with a sensation of having been
275
readmitted to the world of the living. However, Lillian?s recommencement of life is
deceptive. She does not return to the realm of the living as an equal.
Lillian?s continued existence on the periphery to death is implied in her physical
appearance and the manner in which she is perceived by the other characters. Above, it
was shown how Lillian experiences the journey through the Gotthard Tunnel to be
irreversible: ?Der alte Planet, auf dem das Sanatorium stand, blieb hinter ihr f?r immer?
(Der Himmel, p. 115). Although she does not verbalize this particular figure of speech,
Clerfayt soon after uses a similar term of phrase in a reference to Lillian?s person: ?Die
Dame kommt von einem andern Stern und kennt unsere Gebr?uche hier unten noch
nicht? (Der Himmel, p. 118). Even as Lillian again becomes acquainted with ordinary
life, the descriptions of her exterior reveal that she remains an observer rather than
becoming a participator in life. In a Parisian fashion store when trying on new dresses,
the sales woman compares the visual impact of Lillian to that of ?einem gefallenen
Engel? (Der Himmel, 136). She also tries on some jackets, ?die den K?rper fast
substanzlos machten? (Der Himmel, p. 138). As Clerfayt later catches sight of Lillian
wearing one of these jackets, his impression of her is likewise that of an otherworldly
being:
[O]ben, in ihrem Zimmer, w?rden ihr [Lillian]
wahrscheinlich pl?tzlich aus der goldenen Bolerojacke
zwei Fl?gel wachsen, und sie w?rde durch das Fenster
fliegen, rasch, hinaus, nicht zur Sainte-Chapelle, von der
sie ihm erz?hlt hatte, sondern auf einem sehr eleganten
Hexenbesen, der vermutlich auch von Balenciaga oder
Dior war, direkt zu einer Walpurgisnacht, an der nur
Teufel in Fracks teilnahmen, die jeden
Geschwindigkeitsrekord gebrochen hatten, sich in sechs
Sprachen flie?end unterhielten, von Plato bis Heidegger
alles kannten und nebenher noch Klaviervirtuosen,
Boxweltmeister und Poeten waren (Der Himmel, p. 159).
276
  Whereas the sales woman compares Lillian to an angel, Clerfayt analogizes her with
an enchantress. He thereby expresses his attraction to her and implies the power she has
over him. The main point is, however, that whether equated with an angel or a witch,
Lillian differs from the people around her. Even after having ascended to what Greek
mythology would call the ?upper world?, she cannot become an integral part of ordinary
life: ?Sie lebte in einer schwerelosen, grauen und silbernen Welt? (Der Himmel, p. 139).
Despite residing in the midst of the vibrant and colourful city of Paris, Lillian is not part
of that life.
Having, at least metaphorically, returned to the world of the living, Lillian discovers
that her values have changed with the knowledge of her impending death. Her outlook
on life has therefore altered from that of standard society. Lillian?s uncle, for instance,
whom she estimates to be approximately eighty years old, budgets excessively as if he
still had a long life to finance. In contrast, Lillian takes a hedonistic approach to life,
and Clerfayt says to her: ?Du lebst mit mir wie jemand, der morgen nicht mehr dasein
wird. Wie jemand, der immer am Abreisen ist? (Der Himmel, p. 272). Clerfayt refers, of
course, to Lillian?s unwillingness to commit to a relationship and settle down, but
unbeknown to the speaker, Remarque consciously employs the ambiguous verb
?abreisen? in his character?s comment. Having defined it as a euphemism of death in the
opening section of Der Himmel, the author thereby plays on this connotative verb also
at this later stage in the novel. He thereby pinpoints the aspect which distinguishes
Lillian from the majority: the fact that she is dying.
One of the central narrative strategies which Remarque applies in this novel is the
impact that narrative and dialogue, respectively, have on the perspective. As noted
above, Der Himmel is narrated in the third-person and focalized intermittently through
the characters of Lillian and Clerfayt. There are, however, a few exceptions to this
277
pattern, and the reader is occasionally allowed temporary access to the thoughts of also
Lillian?s fellow patient and close friend in the sanatorium, Boris Wolkow. He and
Clerfayt come to constitute the two main persons in Lillian life. The two men essentially
represent opposing worlds: Whereas Wolkow has accepted his terminal tuberculosis and
his subsequent confinement to the sanatorium, Clerfayt has no health problems, but
leads a busy lifestyle which takes him all across Europe.
Despite their central roles in Lillian?s existence, the relationship between Lillian and
the two men proves to be characterized by dishonesty, miscommunication or lack of
communication. The following examples relate to statements by Clerfayt, Wolkow and
Lillian: ?Es war nicht wahr? (Der Himmel, p. 36); ??Ich habe ihn akzeptiert?, sagte er
und wu?te, da? es nicht wahr war? (Der Himmel, p. 64); ?Lillian wu?te, da? sie nicht
die Wahrheit sagte? (Der Himmel, p. 101); ?Ich l?ge auch bereits, dachte er? (Der
Himmel, p. 101); ?Ihr kam keinen Augenblick der Gedanke, ihm die Wahrheit zu sagen?
(Der Himmel, p. 221); ?Es war nicht wahr? (Der Himmel, p. 233). Although evident to
the reader, the three characters are oblivious to the persistency of this flaw in their
relationship. The reader, however, being able to observe both the contemplations of the
individual characters and their accompanying dialogues, cannot but notice the recurrent
incongruence between thought and verbalization.
Wolkow and Clerfayt both wish to retain Lillian in their individual worlds. The former
attempts to stop Lillian from leaving the sanatorium, and Clerfayt tries to bind her
through marriage. She revolts against both ties, but none of the implicated parties
manages to communicate effectively their emotions on the matter. The episodes
depicting the verbal clashes which take place between Lillian, and Wolkow and
Clerfayt, respectively, are heavily dominated by thought, as opposed to actual dialogue.
Their communication is simultaneously lacking honest information and willingness to
278
listen. The dialogues are subsequently fruitless and without satisfactory conclusion. To
attain a proper impression of the uneven proportion of narrative and dialogue, as well as
the extent to which secrecy and untruthfulness characterize the interaction between
Lillian and the two men, the individual episodes need reading in full. The following
excerpt, however, offers at least partial insight into the workings of narrative and
dialogue in Der Himmel. The example shows Wolkow confronting Lillian about her
departure from the sanatorium:
?La? Clerfayt abfahren, und du wirst in wenigen Tagen
einsehen, wie falsch es gewesen w?re, diesem
Rattenf?nger zu folgen?, sagte Wolkow. ?Boris?,
erwiderte Lillian hoffnungslos. ?Es ist nicht Clerfayt. Mu?
es denn ein anderer Mann sein?? Er antwortete nicht.
Wozu sage ich ihr das, dachte er. Ich bin ein Narr, ich tue
alles, um sie weiter fortzujagen! Warum sage ich ihr nicht
l?chelnd, da? sie recht hat? Warum ben?tze ich nicht den
alten Trick? Wei? ich nicht, da? verliert, wer festhalten
will, und da? man dem nachl?uft, der l?chelnd losl??t?
Habe ich das vergessen? ?Nein?, sagte er. ?Es mu? nicht
ein anderer Mann sein. Aber wenn es nicht so ist, warum
fragst du dann nicht mich, ob ich mit dir kommen will??
?Dich?? Falsch, dachte er, wieder falsch! Wozu dr?nge
ich mich ihr auf? Sie will der Krankheit entfliehen ? wozu
sollte sie da einen Kranken mitnehmen? Der letzte Mann,
mit dem sie reisen m?chte, bin ich! ?Ich will nichts
mitnehmen, Boris?, erwiderte sie. ?Ich liebe dich; aber ich
will nichts mitnehmen.? ?Du willst alles vergessen??
Wieder falsch, dachte er verzweifelt (Der Himmel, pp.
102-03).
  The extract is succeeded by a lengthy, unbroken passage in which Wolkow further
reflects upon their situation. He nevertheless does not voice his contemplations, but
brings the discussion to an end with the following short utterance of resignation:
?Adieu, Lillian? (Der Himmel, p. 104). When, later in the novel, Clerfayt shows Lillian
his house in the South of France and suggests marriage, the narrative again reflects a
breakdown in communication. Clerfayt refuses to acknowledge Lillian?s lack of
279
enthusiasm towards the idea. Instead the conversation concludes with Clerfayt enforcing
his plan: ??Wir k?nnen es wenigstens versuchen?, sagte Clerfayt. ?Wenn es nicht geht,
verkaufen wir das Haus? (Der Himmel, p. 273). Lillian does not consent to the proposal,
but she likewise does not express her objection to Clerfayt. The reader, however, has
access to the thoughts which successful communication would have required Lillian to
state openly: ?Ich habe keine Zeit mehr, etwas zu versuchen, dachte Lillian. Und ich
habe keine Zeit mehr zu Experimenten mit h?uslichem Gl?ck. Es macht mich zu traurig.
Ich mu? fort!? (Der Himmel, p. 273).
  In Der Himmel, the focus is predominantly on Lillian?s character. A first-person
narrative perspective would therefore perhaps have been a more fitting choice for this
work. Certainly, it would have created a level of immediacy and closeness between the
reader and the narrative which is not equalled in the novel as it stands. Notwithstanding,
as a first-person narrative, the viewpoint would have been limited to Lillian?s
experience of events. It would thus have failed to present fully the true relationship
between Lillian and the two men. The extent to which Lillian?s illness has altered her
approach to life indeed only assumes real clarity when considered against the
perspectives of Clerfayt and even Wolkow who, unlike Lillian, has come to terms with
his impending death. (Lillian only achieves a similar state of mind at the end of the
novel.)
  Resulting from the continued lack of effective communication, a barrier remains
between Lillian?s character and those of Clerfayt and Wolkow. A similar assertion is
applicable also to Lillian?s interactions with other characters. She continuously voices
or conveys an image to her surroundings which differs from her thoughts. Dining with
Peystre, a friend of her uncle, Lillian appears to be listening politely to his contribution
280
to the conversation. However, her thoughts disclose that she is less engaged in his talk
than her reaction suggests:
Ihm folgte nach einigen Minuten ein Kellner mit einer
kleinen Flasche Framboise. [?] ?Alter Himbeergeist?,
sagte Peystre mit Andacht. ?Noch rarer!? Lillian dachte:
was w?rde er tun, wenn ich ihm den Himbeergeist jetzt in
sein ?berz?chtetes Gesicht g?sse? Wahrscheinlich w?rde
er das auch verstehen und einen h?bschen Satz dar?ber
sagen (Der Himmel, p. 262).
  The excerpt develops into a paragraph set exclusively in Lillian?s mind; indeed, a large
part of the novel revolves around Lillian?s thoughts. As exemplified in the quotation
above, even in company, the narrative is often dominated by Lillian?s unspoken
contemplations. This prioritized focus on her inner self, combined with the fact that she
fails to communicate successfully and honestly with the other characters, creates an
overall impression of Lillian?s character being ? partly voluntarily ? lonely and
emotionally secluded. Remarque therefore also utilizes the perspective and the
unbalanced proportion of narrative and dialogue to pinpoint the isolated position of his
female protagonist.
  Lillian essentially moves in a sphere which is inaccessible to most people, a sphere
between life and death. To highlight Lillian?s preoccupation with her own mortality, but
also the reality of the constant threat which death imposes on her existence, the novel
incorporates numerous direct and indirect references to demise. As shown above, death
is, for example, represented symbolically in the form of darkness. It is, however, also a
much used topic in the novel?s similes: ?Und was sollte dieser Handschuh daneben, der
wie eine tote, schwarz gewordene Hand aussah [?]? (Der Himmel, p. 54); ?Die Reihen
der Gondeln, die vor den Anlegestellen wie schwarze S?rge auf dem spiegelnden
Wasser schwankten, wie schwarze, gro?e Wassergeier [?] [my emphases]? (Der
281
Himmel, p. 210)
 46
 Other narrative tools have likewise been utilized to convey the
message of Lillian?s proximity to extinction. Although the hyperbolic verb of
?totlachen? (Der Himmel, p. 34) is essentially not concerned with death, it is nonetheless
an example of the types of linguistic details which add to the overall gloomy theme of
the novel. Lillian?s familiarity with the presence of death is also expressed through her
use of pronouns. Riding in a horse carriage in the vicinity of the sanatorium, she passes
another wagon transporting away the coffin with the deceased patient, Agnes
Somerville:
Der Kutscher bekreuzigte sich und trieb das Pferd wieder
an. Schweigend fuhren sie die letzten Kurven hinauf und
hielten vor dem Seiteneingang des Sanatoriums. Eine
elektrische Birne unter einem Porzellanschirm warf einen
Kreis gelben Lichtes auf den Schnee. Darin lagen ein paar
abgerissene gr?ne Bl?tter. Lillian stieg aus. ?Es hilft alles
nichts?, sagte sie mit einem m?hsamen L?cheln. ?Man
kann es eine Weile vergessen ? aber man kann ihm nicht
entgehen [my emphasis]? (Der Himmel, p. 39).
As a masculine noun, ?der Tod? necessarily requires the personal pronoun ?er?. There
is, however, no direct mention of death in the entire episode, and yet Lillian finds it
sufficient to refer to it by pronoun. Another example occurs when Lillian and the young
poet, G?rard, stumble across the body of a dead woman in the streets of Paris. Whereas
Lillian wishes to notify the authorities, the young man is horror-stricken. ?G?rard ging
so eilig, da? sie ihm kaum nachkommen konnte. Als sie die Quais erreicht hatten, sah
sie, da? er sehr bla? war. ?Es ist etwas anderes, ihm gegen?berzustehen, als dar?ber zu
reden, wie?? sagte sie mit bitterem Spott [my emphasis]? (Der Himmel, p, 267). Again,
Lillian does not state directly that the pronoun refers to death. This does, however, not
blur the reader?s comprehension of her statement, but only stresses the implied leading
role death has come to play in her existence.
282
 Lillian?s ineffective communication with other people results in her conveyance of a
false image to her surroundings. Remarque utilizes this aspect of her character to create
a convincing leitmotif in the form of mirrors. The deceptive image Lillian
communicates verbally is thus illustrated and stressed effectively through her recurrent
consultations with her own mirror-reflection. She seeks affirmation that her illness
cannot be visually detected, and she finds solace in the fact that she is able to keep her
condition secret. By hiding her illness, it becomes less pervasive of her existence and
subsequently less real and frightening to her. Her illusory reflection in the mirror
therefore serves to deceive not only her surroundings, but to a certain extent also her
own mind. Following the taking of an x-ray in the sanatorium, Lillian inspects the black
and white image:
[P]l?tzlich war ihr, als s?he sie sich selbst, tot, nach
Jahren im Grabe, das Fleisch bereits zerfallen zu grauer
Erde und nur die Knochen noch fest, das einzige, was
standgehalten hatte. Sie legte die Filme auf den Tisch. Ich
mache wieder Unsinn, dachte sie ? aber sie ging trotzdem
zum Spiegel und blickte hinein [?] (Der Himmel, pp. 88-
89).
  A similar example occurs when Lillian enters the dining-room of the sanatorium. In
the doorway, she almost collides with another woman who subsequently screams in
surprise: ?Lillian ging eilig an den Tisch zu Hollmann und Clerfayt und sah sich dann
nach der Frau um. ?Was schreit sie denn?? fl?sterte sie. ?Ich bin doch kein Gespenst!
Oder doch? Schon?? Sie suchte nach ihrem Spiegel? (Der Himmel, p. 28).
  Throughout the novel, Lillian continues to use the mirror as personal confirmation that
she is indeed still alive. As a leitmotif, the mirror is therefore especially effective as it
not only functions aesthetically, but simultaneously also reflects an important side of
Lillian?s psyche.
283
 Through most of the novel, Lillian perceives herself as a victim. ?[P]l?tzlich kam
wieder einer der Augenblicke, wo alles unverst?ndlich war und alle Tricks nicht halfen,
wo das Elend sie ?berw?ltigte und alles in ohnm?chtigem Aufruhr in ihr schrie:
Warum? Warum gerade ich? Was habe ich getan, da? gerade ich getroffen werden
mu?te?? (Der Himmel, p. 281). However, as a twist to the tale, Clerfayt has a fatal
accident in what was intended to be his final car-race before retiring from that
profession. Having thus far regarded herself singled out as a victim, Lillian?s initial
reaction to the announcement of Clerfayt?s demise is one of disbelief. This is conveyed
indirectly by use of different narrative strategies. In Lillian?s mind, for instance, the
reiterated prefixation of the noun ?Spielzeug-? reveals her incomprehension of what has
occurred: ?Es kann nicht sein, dachte etwas in Lillian. Nicht in diesem Spielzeugrennen,
nicht in dieser Spielzeugstadt mit dem Spielzeughafen und dem bunten
Spielzeugpanorama! [my emphases]? (Der Himmel, p. 292). Lillian basically equates
death with illness, but has not considered the numerous other perils which are part of
everyday life and which strike unexpectedly and unannounced.
  As she associates death with a preceding phase of illness, Lillian is shocked when the
hospital announces that Clerfayt has passed away. To stress this, Remarque uses
reported speech to depict Lillian?s interaction with other people as she attempts to
arrange the funeral. The reported speech conveys effectively Lillian?s confused state of
mind and her difficulty in comprehending the turn of events. The exemplifying excerpt
is part of a lengthier passage narrated predominantly in reported speech:
Der Portier erkl?rte ihr, da? die Beh?rden benachrichtigt
werden m??ten. Ob sie eine Obduktion w?nsche?
Manchmal sei es n?tig, um die Todesursache
festzustellen. Wozu? Wegen der Rechtsanspr?che. Die
Autofirma k?nne versuchen, die Rennveranstalter
verantwortlich zu machen. Dann seien noch die
284
Versicherungen zu ber?cksichtigen; auch k?nnte es andere
Verwicklungen geben ? am besten w?re es, auf alles
gefa?t zu sein (Der Himmel, pp. 300-301).
  Lillian?s view of her own situation alters following Clerfayt?s accidental death, as she
realizes that heaven has no favourites, and that everybody potentially lives in the
shadow of death. She subsequently decides to return to the sanatorium, as she no longer
feels the need to reject a lifestyle governed by her illness.
  Der Himmel concludes with a short paragraph reminiscent of the closing passage of Im
Westen. The similarity becomes especially obvious when individual sentences of the
two texts are juxtaposed. In Im Westen, the narrator says of B?umer:
Er fiel im Oktober 1918, an einem Tage, der so ruhig und
still war an der ganzen Front, da? der Heeresbericht sich
nur auf den Satz beschr?nkte, im Westen sei nichts Neues
zu melden [my emphases] (Im Westen, p. 197).
In Der Himmel, the final paragraph begins:
Lillian starb sechs Wochen sp?ter, an einem wei?en
Sommermittag, der so still war, da? die Landschaft den
Atem anzuhalten schien [my emphases] (Der Himmel, p.
318).
The highlighted elements show that the two sentences are structured identically, and
that, in both examples, death occurs on a particularly quiet day. The similarity between
the demise of Lillian and that of B?umer continues:
Als man ihn umdrehte, sah man, da? er sich nicht lange
gequ?lt haben konnte [?] [my emphasis] (Im Westen, p.
197).
285
Als er [Boris Wolkow] zur?ckkam, fand er sie tot auf
ihrem Bett [my emphasis] (Der Himmel, p. 318).
Even the closing words of each work reveal a connection:
Sein Gesicht hatte einen so gefa?ten Ausdruck, als w?re er
beinahe zufrieden damit, da? es so gekommen war (Im
Westen, p. 197).
[D]as Gesicht wurde sch?ner, als er [Boris Wolkow] es
seit langem gesehen hatte. Er glaubte auch, da? sie
gl?cklich gewesen sei, soweit man einen Menschen jemals
gl?cklich nennen k?nne (Der Himmel, p. 318).
  Another connection to Im Westen is found in an earlier episode of Der Himmel. The
day after having discovered the body of a dead woman in Rue de Seine, Lillian searches
the newspapers for information of the victim: ?Sie fand nichts. Es war zu unbedeutend
f?r eine Zeitungsnotiz, da? ein Mensch gestorben war? (Der Himmel, p. 270). This
clearly alludes to the notion presented in Im Westen. There is, however, not an obvious
similarity between the characters of Lillian and B?umer, and it thus seems curious that
Remarque should echo the famous closing words of Im Westen, in Der Himmel. Graeber
in Zeit zu leben, for instance, has more in common with B?umer than does Lillian. The
inner journeys of B?umer and Lillian can, of course, be equated in as far as they both
eventually come to terms with their individual situations. However, within the context
of the Hauptwerk, Lillian and B?umer are essentially just another two victims of
circumstances beyond their control.
  Neither Obelisk nor Der Himmel received outstanding reviews. The latter in particular
was criticized severely. Reich-Ranicki, for example, says of the novel: ?Die Gestalten
sind schablonenhaft, die Aphorismen pubert?r, die Symbole mehr als aufdringlich, die
286
Geschmacklosigkeiten un?berbietbar. Der Stil ist besch?mend, die Sentimentalit?t
schauderhaft, die Routine absto?end?.
47
 Reich-Ranicki does, however, also make the
point that Remarque?s novels have remained evaluated on the basis of reviewers? stance
to the early novel Im Westen. He then proceeds to imply his own assimilation with the
category of those ?die ihm [Remarque] schon vor vielen Jahren gez?rnt haben?.
48
 The
critic thereby admits his biased standpoint, and hence discredits ? although
unintentionally ? his own review.
  Remarque-research has nonetheless thus far focused almost exclusively on the war and
exile novels. Even in the sixteen Remarque Jahrb?cher published to date there are no
articles focusing on Der Himmel. The major studies on Remarque likewise largely reject
this novel as weak. Barker and Last, who otherwise offer one of the most valuable
interpretations of Remarque?s novels, claim in relation to Der Himmel that ?a charge of
superficiality would on this occasion be difficult to refute?.
49
 However, similarly to
many of their colleagues, they barely pay the novel any attention. Rather, they treat it on
only a few pages in their chapter The Aftermath and the Inflation Years. As the title of
the chapter suggests, the focus is on the 1920s and Der Himmel is predominantly
analysed alongside Kameraden. However, as the examination of the Der Himmel,
above, shows, the narrative strategies have been carefully selected to correlate with and
support the contents of the work. The perspective, the proportion of narrative to
dialogue; symbolism and aesthetic elements applied locally in the novel all fulfil
individual functions in conveying the psychological process Lillian undergoes.
  A similar interdependence between content and form governs Obelisk. Nevertheless,
Antkowiak rejects what he calls Remarque?s literary routine: ?Im k?nstlerischen Sinne
freilich kann man Remarque leider nur eine allzu gro?e Se?haftigkeit best?tigen. Seit
dem Roman ?Der Weg zur?ck? hat sich Remarque nur zuweilen mit unendlicher M?he
287
von der literarischen Routine befreien k?nnen?.
50
 Charles Poore, however, says: ?The
less things change in the novels of Erich Maria Remarque the less they are the same?.
51
Remarque does indeed recycle many elements from novel to novel, but the author also
introduces new techniques and material. The above examination of Obelisk shows, for
example, that Obelisk is, simultaneously, a First and Second World War novel. Also,
despite the fact that the first-person perspective of the framed story echoes techniques
found already in Im Westen, Der Weg and Kameraden, Remarque introduces the
framework-structure in Obelisk, and thereby entirely alters the workings of the text as a
whole.
Aside from Reich-Ranicki?s attack on Der Himmel, of the two novels treated in this
chapter, German reviewers generally object more markedly to Obelisk. As with
Remarque?s previous books, this reaction from his native country must be regarded as
the result of the work?s political message. Der Himmel, for instance, although
containing scattered criticisms of Germany?s inability to deal with its National Socialist
past effectively, does not focus on this issue. In Obelisk, on the other hand, it constitutes
a central theme. The political impact of Obelisk can be gathered also from the fact that
perceptions of the work have altered with the passing of time. In 1999, for example,
Thomas Oppermann explained his introduction to Obelisk and its author as follows:
?Alle kennen diesen nieders?chsischen Autor der Weltliteratur ? Im Westen nichts
Neues ?, aber was hat er sonst noch geschrieben? Ich lese mit Neugier und
Begeisterung?.
52
288
                               Notes to Der schwarze Obelisk and
                       Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge
1. The diary entries from July 1950 to August 1951 are especially informative of Karen
Horney?s impact on Remarque?s state of mind. Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk, V:
Briefe und Tageb?cher, pp. 425-62. See also: Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal,
pp. 342-49.
2. Remarque, Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, p. 491.
3. A German original is not known to exist. However, for a translation from English by
Thomas F. Schneider see: Erich Maria Remarque, ?Praktische Erziehungsarbeit in
Deutschland nach dem Krieg?, in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten, pp. 226-42. The essay
is also in: Ein militanter Pazifist, pp. 66-83; and in Das unbekannte Werk, IV:
Kurzprosa und Gedichte, pp. 387-403. An examination of the text is found in: Lothar
Schwindt, ?Geheimdienstarbeit: Remarques Schrift Practical Educational Work in
Germany after the War?, in Erich Maria Remarque 1898-1970, pp. 65-78.
4. Although Remarque produced a great number of short stories, essays and poems
during the 1920s, most of these were written specifically for the Echo Continental or
Sport im Bild. Remarque gained the financial security and therefore the authorial
independence to choose his genre, themes, target group and style following the success
of Im Westen.
5. Remarque, ?Der letzte Akt: Drehbuch?, in Das unbekannte Werk, III: Die letzte
Station, Der letzte Akt, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp.11-151.
6. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 386; Heinrich Placke, ?Die politischen
Diskussionen um den Remarque-Film Der letzte Akt (?sterreich 1955)?, in Erich Maria
Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 5 (1995), 65-87 (p. 80). See also: Hermann Flau,
?Remarque-Verfilmungen: Ungewollt politisch ? politisch ungewollt?, in Erich Maria
Remarque 1898-1970, pp. 113-36 (pp. 125-27).
7. This direct warning statement was not included in Remarque?s manuscript. See:
Placke, ?Die politischen Diskussionen um den Remarque-Film Der letzte Akt?. It must
therefore have been added in the process of rewriting which Fritz Habeck undertook.
Yet, the same words of caution were adopted by Remarque to form the title of an article
which he wrote for the Daily Express in 1956.
 
With reference to Der letzte Akt, the
article unambiguously reflects the author?s indignation at the apparent nonchalance with
which Germany dealt with its Nazi past. Erich Maria Remarque, ?Seid wachsam! Zum
Film Der letzte Akt?.
289
8. Flau lists four further film titles which Remarque were allegedly involved in the
production of. These are Inherit the Wind (1960), Exodus (1960), The Longest Day
(1962) and The Victors (1963). Flau, ?Remarque-Verfilmungen: Ungewollt politisch ?
politisch ungewollt?, pp. 116, 132.
9. Remarque, ?Die letzte Station?.
10. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 395.
11. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, pp. 396-97; Wagener, Understanding Erich
Maria Remarque, pp. 118-19; Thomas F. Schneider, ?Erich Maria Remarque ?
Kurzbiographie in Daten?, pp. 88,92.
12. Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque, p. 4.
13. See Remarque?s diary entry from 15 August 1950. Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe
und Tageb?cher, pp. 428-31
14. Firda perceives it as ?the last part of Remarque?s trilogy on his life in Osnabr?ck
[?]?. Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels, p. 188. Barker
and Last likewise examine Obelisk in conjunction with the early First World War
novels. Their analysis of this novel is included in the chapter entitled: The Aftermath
and the Inflation Years. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 69-109. Wagener
too takes this stand. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 82.
15. Bernhard Nienaber: Vom anachronistischen Helden zum larmoyanten Untertan;
Heinrich Placke, Die Chiffren des Utopischen: Zum literarischen Gehalt der politischen
50er-Jahre-Romane Erich Maria Remarques (G?ttigen: V & R unipress, 2004).
16. The spelling differs slightly in the two novels. The character in Der Weg is named
Willy Homeyer (Der Weg, p. 9); Bodmer?s friend in Obelisk, however, is called Willy
Hohmeyer (Obelisk, p. 228).
17. For the overall structure and the function of the framework in Obelisk, see also:
Nienaber, Vom anachronistischen Helden zum larmoyanten Untertan, pp. 165-66.
18. Perhaps as a result of its implied criticism of the Cold War, the introductory
statement was not included in the American edition of Obelisk. As a result, the novel?s
message changed altogether. See Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, pp.
85-86, 92.
19. Placke, Die Chiffren des Utopischen, p. 46. Martin Walser, Ein springender
Brunnen (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1998), p. 9.
20. This interpretation of Remarque?s use of the present tense in the Weimar story is
likewise suggested by Bernhard Nienaber, ?Der Blick zur?ck: Remarques Romane
gegen die Adenauer-Restauration?, p. 89.
21. Placke, Die Chiffren des Utopischen p. 66.
290
22. Man kann alten Dreck nicht vergraben; er f?ngt immer wieder an zu stinken:
Materialen zu einem Erich Maria Remarque-Projekt der Universit?t Osnabr?ck,
Fachbereich Sprache Literatur Medien, und zu der Inszenierung der Probeb?hne. Der
schwarze Obelisk: Eine Textkollage, edited by Lothar Schwindt and Tilman Westphalen
(Osnabr?ck: Department for Language, Literature and Media in the University of
Osnabr?ck, 1984), p. 206. See also: Placke, Die Chiffren des Utopischen, pp. 66, 80-86.
23. Artur Schneckenburger, Die Geschichte des I.G -Farben-Konzerns: Bedeutung und
Rolle eines Gro?unternehmens (Cologne: Pahl-Rugenstein, 1988), p. 8.
24. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 84.
25. Man kann alten Dreck nicht vergraben, edited by Schwindt and Westphalen, p. 206.
26. Placke, Die Chiffren des Utopischen, p. 82.
27. Man kann alten Dreck nicht vergraben, edited by Schwindt and Westphalen, p. 218.
28. Tilman Westphalen, ?Unser Golgata: Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, in
Obelisk, pp. 395-414 (p. 396).
29. Schneider, Erich Maria Remarque: Ein Chronist des 20. Jahrhunderts, p. 28. See
also: Tilman Westphalen, ??Mein Thema ist der Mensch dieses Jahrhunderts, die Frage
der Humanit?t?: Erich Maria Remarque als Chronist deutscher Geschichte?, in Erich
Maria Remarque 1898-1970, pp. 13-28 (p. 20).
30. Anon., ?Erich Maria Remarque, Violent Author?Quiet Man?, News Week, 1 April
1957, p. 108.
31. With regards to Remarque?s oeuvre, Obelisk has generally been identified as the
novel containing most autobiographical elements. The interweaving of fictitiousness
and reality is reflected alone in the name, Werdenbr?ck, which immediately creates
thought-associations not only to Osnabr?ck, but also to Graeber?s hometown, Werden,
in Zeit zu leben which was likewise modelled on Osnabr?ck.
32. See, for instance, Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 399; Firda, Erich
Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels, pp. 193- 219. Wagener,
Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 88-89. Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria
Remarque: Sparks of Life, pp. 212, 215. Placke compares the two novels several times:
Placke, Die Chiffren des Utopischen, for example, pp. 47, 55, 86. Obelisk has also been
mentioned alongside Voltaire?s Candide. See Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A
Thematic Analysis of His Novels, p. 193; Charles Poore, ?Books of the Times?, The New
York Times, 2 April, 1957, p. 29.
33. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 99.
34. Obelisk features the additional title: Geschichte einer versp?teten Jugend. Wagener
has interpreted this as referring to Bodmer?s time in Werdenbr?ck, prior to leaving for
Berlin: ?Bodmer?s youth has passed and he must now face the reality of life in the big
city?. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 90. Barker and Last apply a
291
similar reading: ?For Bodmer, bidding farewell to Isabelle means that he is also bidding
farewell to his own youth?. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 100. However,
in conversation with his friend, Georg Kroll, Bodmer clearly states that he has not yet
recovered the youth he lost during the war: ??Ich [Georg] dachte, man h?tte dir die
Jugend beim Milit?r gestohlen?? ?Stimmt. Ich [Bodmer] bin immer noch auf die Suche
nach ihr, finde sie aber nicht. Deshalb habe ich einen doppelten Weltschmerz??
(Obelisk, p. 195). This pain is only alleviated at the end of the novel when he parts from
Isabelle, and leaves Werdenbr?ck. It is thus only then that Bodmer can resume and
begin to assume the belated youth which the additional title refers to.
35. In Kameraden, Lohkamp and his friends race ? in Karl ? against a large Buick in
which Pat is a passenger. As the cars stop at an inn, Lohkamp encounters Pat for the
first time. In Der Himmel, as Clerfayt arrives in the vicinity of the sanatorium, the
engine of his car, Giuseppe, cuts out. Having identified and repaired the fault, Clerfayt
revs the engine a few times, but thereby frightens the horses of a passing horse-drawn
sledge. Having assisted in calming the animals, his attention turns to the passengers of
which Lillian is one.
36. Given the fact that Gam was only published in 1998, it is not surprising that the
studies which include this novel fragment are mostly relatively recent. See, for example:
Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal; Parvanova, ??das Symbol der Ewigkeit ist der
Kreis?; Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque.
37. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 127.
38. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 129.
39. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 129.
40. For the use of light and darkness in Remarque?s novels, see also: Parvanova, ??das
Symbol der Ewigkeit ist der Kreis?, pp. 168-75. Despite the fact that light and darkness
convey important information about Lillian?s psychological development, most critics
of Der Himmel have failed to notice the importance of the function of these opposites.
Firda, for example, stresses, and justly so, the importance of Lillian?s almost spiritual
experience in the Sainte-Chapelle. Her visit to the church has a profound impact on her
journey towards accepting her illness. However, Firda then erroneously suggests that
the change in Lillian?s frame of mind is ?achieved by the therapeutic and healing power
of great art?. Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels, p. 235.
It is rather the fact that Lillian is ?umh?llt von Licht? (Der Himmel, p. 144) which has a
calming effect on her. This is stated directly: ?[D]as Licht nahm sie auf und sch?tzte sie?
(Der Himmel, p. 144).
41. Boa and Reid distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic patterns. (This is not to be
confused with Wellek and Warren?s use of extrinsic and intrinsic interpretative
approaches.) The extrinsic pattern, Boa and Reid again divide into two categories:
Thematic and formal. The thematic extrinsic pattern, they describe as ?the retelling of an
archetypal story in contemporary guise or with contemporary implications?. In contrast,
a formal extrinsic pattern ? or submerged form ? has ?a clearly defined shape and
tradition?. Boa and Reid mention, for example, the detective novel, which generally
follows such a set pattern. Boa and Reid, Critical Strategies, p. 26. The extrinsic pattern
292
of Orpheus and Eurydice is treated by Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque:
Sparks of Life, pp. 213, 14.
42. Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 213-14.
43. Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque, 213.
44. Eurydice essentially dies a second time when she has to return to Hades following
Orpheus?s disregard of the gods? rules. See, for instance, Mandelbaum?s translation
which incorporates the phrase: ?second death?. Ovid, The Metamorphoses of Ovid: A
New Verse Translation by Allen Mandelbaum (San Diego etc.: Harvest, 1993), pp. 325-
28 (p. 327).
45. Ovid, The Metamorphoses of Ovid, p. 327.
46. At this point, Lillian is in Venice and, as several critics have pointed out, the
location suggests that Remarque found inspiration for Der Himmel in Thomas Mann?s
Der Tod in Venidig. Barker and Last especially note that Remarque?s reference to ?the
river Styx and to gondolas resembling black coffins again suggest the influence of
Thomas Mann?. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, pp. 93-94.
47. Marcel Reich-Ranicki, Deutsche Literatur in West und Ost (Munich: R. Piper & co,
1966), p. 256.
48. Reich-Ranicki, Deutsche Literatur in West und Ost, p. 253.
49. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 95.
50. Alfred Antkowiak, ?Zu einem neuen Roman von Erich Maria Remarque: ?Der
schwarze Obelisk??, (Ost Berlin, no title), 2 December, 1956.
51. Charles Poore, ?Books of The Times?.
52. Oppermann, ?Mit Wall und dem kleinen Gespenst?, G?ttinger Tageblatt, 20 January
2000. Also: ?Mein Lieblingsbuch: Ein echter Klassiker?, Oranienburger
Generalanzeiger, 7/8 December 2002; K?bi Kuhn, ?Meine Bestenliste?, Die Weltwoche,
19 September 2002.
293
                                                          Chapter 6
                                 Die Nacht von Lissabon
  In his final two novels, Die Nacht von Lissabon and Schatten im Paradies, Remarque
presents a chronological and thematic continuation of his earlier emigration novels.
Whereas the previous works, Liebe Deinen N?chsten and Arc de Triomphe, portray the
problems and perils with which the European refugee was faced in the interwar years,
Remarque?s last two novels focus on emigrant life during the war years. The latter two
conclude by also touching on the subject of Germany?s failure to deal with its National
Socialist past, following the war. As with most of Remarque?s works, Lissabon and
Schatten are linked thematically and form an indirect novel-pair. They are likewise
related to the two early exile novels, and can justly be viewed as loosely constituting a
tetralogy.
  The four novels, Liebe Deinen N?chsten, Arc de Triomphe, Lissabon and Schatten, are
certainly connected through their chronological development, and their common
dedication to the theme of exile. Moreover, collectively they draw a general image of
those who were victimized by the National Socialist regime and who subsequently fled,
initially to the adjourning countries, but with the advancement of German troops, also to
other European countries. This continued journey of escape, the so called Via Dolorosa
of the refugee, often concluded at the ports of Bordeaux or Lisbon where the emigrants
hoped to board a ship for extra-European destinations; notably America. In his exile
294
novels, Remarque depicts different stages of this journey. However, in spite of the
overall thematic link between the four works, the author does not mention an intended
bond between them, as he does in relation to his First World War novels in the prologue
of the manuscript Pat. Also, whereas the early war novels, Im Westen, Der Weg and
Kameraden, are evidently overlapping, not only with regard to their theme, but also in
their application of similar first-person narrators, the exile novels are less consistent
with regards to protagonists and narrative perspective.
The true relationship between Remarque?s exile novels is furthermore obscured by the
fact that Remarque never authorized the publication of Schatten because he died prior to
completing this novel, and the work was only published after a considerable degree of
censorship, rewriting and stylistic alterations ? such as the title ? had been carried out
by the Droemer-Knaur Publishing House.
1
 If viewing the title of a text as performative
? as suggested by Derrida ? its alteration essentially changes the ?promise? of that title;
in other words, such a change could shift the overall focus of the text.
2
  Remarque is
thus not the sole or actual author of the final product, and it must remain conjecture how
closely he intended Schatten to be connected to Lissabon and the early exile novels.
Nevertheless, the biblical expression, ?das gelobte Land?, which Remarque had
seemingly planned to entitle his final novel (published as Schatten) occurs on more than
one occasion in the preceding work, Lissabon: ?Wer von hier das gelobte Land Amerika
nicht erreichen konnte, war verloren?; ?[?] und vor uns das gelobte Land Portugal mit
dem Hafen von Lissabon zum noch gelobteren Lande Amerika?; ?wir werden das
gelobte Land, auf das du wartest, nicht zusammen sehen? [my emphases] (Lissabon, pp.
5-6, 232, 300). The phrase in fact also features in Anna Seghers?s exile novel, Transit:
?Bei seinem Anblick zog sich mein Herz zusammen in einem Gef?hl von schmerzlich
295
freudigem Fernweh, eine Art von Hoffnung, doch wu?te ich nicht, auf was. Vielleicht
auf die Weite der Erde, auf unbekanntes gelobtes Land [my emphasis]?.
3
To Remarque?s refugees, America signifies the Promised Land where they hope to
resume an existence free of persecution. In Schatten/ Das gelobte Land, Remarque
proceeds to depict the existence of those of the emigrants who managed to escape to
America. Entitling the manuscript Das gelobte Land, thereby emphasizing this
religiously loaded expression which the author had already introduced in Lissabon,
Remarque therefore possibly wished for his last two novels to be read as somewhat
interconnected. However, as noted above, the revision process of Das gelobte Land was
never completed. In fact, whereas most of Remarque?s other novels emerged from
extensive rewriting and editing of several manuscripts, only two manuscripts exist of
Schatten. This would certainly suggest that Remarque?s amending of this novel reached
only an early stage, and the reader can only speculate about how further reworking of
this last novel would ultimately have changed the direction of the work.
  As argued in the Introduction, this study will exclude Schatten to a great extent, and
only Lissabon therefore remains for a full analysis and evaluation. However, in view of
Remarque?s narrative strategies, this novel is important. The intricate use of perspective
not only testifies to the author?s continued creative initiative and experimentation, but it
is also an important factor in the novel?s solidly structured relationship between form
and content. It is therefore not without reason that this work has been termed ?formal
das komplexeste Erz?hlwerk Remarques?.
4
  Lissabon essentially comprises a single event. Having endured the emigrant?s Via
Dolorosa through Europe, an unnamed, German refugee has reached Lisbon from
where he and his wife hope to escape by ship to America. However, bureaucratic
barriers with regards to the acquisition of visas and an excessively high demand for
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travel tickets make it near impossible. Parading along the quay, the anonymous
emigrant then encounters a fellow refugee, Schwarz, who offers the former man two
tickets for his desired destination, if he is prepared to listen to Schwarz?s personal exile
account. Although initially sceptical about the sincerity of the offer, the unnamed man
acquiesces and spends a night listening to the story of Schwarz. A likeness to Segher?s
Transit cannot be denied. In this work, an Ich-Erz?hler and emigrant addresses the
reader directly who thus comes to function as the attentive listener to the narrator?s exile
experience: ?Ich m?chte gern einmal alles erz?hlen, von Anfang bis zu Ende. Wenn ich
mich nur nicht f?rchten m??te, den andern zu langweilen. Haben Sie sie nicht gr?ndlich
satt, die aufregenden Berichte? [?] Ich f?r mein Teil habe sie alle gr?ndlich satt. [?]
Ich m?chte trotzdem einmal alles von Anfang an erz?hlen?.
5
 Following this
introduction, the exile account follows.
  In Lissabon, the tale of Schwarz occupies the larger proportion of the work, but at the
end of the novel, the anonymous listener has earned his tickets and is able to travel to
America with his wife, Ruth. This turn of events bears considerable resemblance to the
conclusion of the earlier exile novel, Liebe Deinen N?chsten, in which Kern and his
girlfriend ? likewise named Ruth ? acquire tickets for America in an equally unlikely
manner.
6
 However, whereas Liebe Deinen N?chsten ends on a relatively positive note,
at least for Kern and Ruth, the tone of the conclusion of Lissabon is different altogether.
The unnamed refugee and his wife separate soon after their arrival in the States and,
when the former returns to Germany after the war, he is disillusioned by the wide-scale
suppression of the subjects of National Socialism and the war.
Schatten in fact concludes in a similar manner. The Ich-Erz?hler and protagonist,
Robert Ross, returns from exile in the USA to post-war Europe. Like the Ich-Erz?hler
in Lissabon, he finds only disappointment and he draws the same conclusion as, for
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instance, Birkholz in Der Weg. Ross says: ?Man kann nicht zur?ckkehren, nichts steht
still, weder man selbst noch der andere? (Schatten, p. 494).
Although the time of the framework in Lissabon is stated to be 1942 on the opening
page, the Ich-Erz?hler presents his story in the past tense and thereby indicates that his
narrator-present (the moment from which he is talking) succeeds his coincidental
meeting with Schwarz in that particular year. This is confirmed in the novel?s closing
paragraphs which are narrated with the war in hindsight. As in Obelisk and Im Westen,
the pace increases in the closing pages of Lissabon, as the Ich-Erz?hler laconically
summarizes the collapse of Hitler?s regime and his own disappointment on return to
post-war Germany.
Formally, the most striking aspect of Lissabon is its employment of a framework
structure.
7
 In the context of Remarque?s other works, it therefore has some structural
kinship to the earlier novel Obelisk, although their likeness is far from complete. As
discussed in Chapter Five, the framework and the framed story in Obelisk are narrated
by the same character ? Bodmer ? at two different stages of his life. Lissabon is, in
comparison, presented from the points-of-view of two separate characters.
  Although Remarque utilizes frameworks in both Obelisk and Lissabon, his application
of this compositional tool differs in a number of ways in the two novels. Despite, for
instance, the occurrence of anachronism in Obelisk, resulting in the presence of the
mature Bodmer becoming perceptible in the framed 1923 account (although only
elusively), the framework and the framed story of Obelisk are structurally clearly
separated. In Lissabon, however, regular interruptions of Schwarz?s story persistently
remind the reader that the actual source of the tale is not Schwarz, but rather Schwarz?s
original listener, the Ich-Erz?hler of the framework. A similar pattern characterizes
Transit in which sudden exclamations by the narrator reminds the reader of his/ her role
298
as the listener: ?Haben Sie bitte Geduld mit mir! Ich werde bald auf die Hauptsache
kommen?; ?Bitte verzeihen Sie diese Abschweifung!?; ?Selbst wenn ich Sie jetzt noch
einmal mit der Familie Binnet langweile ? wir stehen schon wieder dicht vor der
Hauptsache [?]?.
8
  In Lissabon, the interruptions of Schwarz?s story vary in length, but mostly they
consist of brief exchanges of views between the Ich-Erz?hler and Schwarz in relation to
the tale of the latter. As these short dialogues display Schwarz?s actual status in the
novel as a third-person character, they create distance between the reader and Schwarz.
This is illustrated, for instance, in the following excerpt where the Ich-Erz?hler
proposes to buy Schwarz?s passport:
Schwarz sch?ttelte den Kopf.
?Warum nicht??
?Ich kann ihn nicht verkaufen?, sagte Schwarz. ?Ich habe
ihn selbst geschenkt bekommen. Aber ich kann ihn Ihnen
schenken. Morgen fr?h. K?nnen Sie ihn brauchen??
?Mein Gott!? sagte ich atemlos. ?Brauchen! Er w?rde
mich retten! Ich habe in meinem kein amerikanisches
Visum und w??te nicht, wie ich eins bis morgen
nachmittag bekommen k?nnte.?
Schwarz l?chelte schwerm?tig. ?Wie sich alles
wiederholt! Sie erinnern mich an die Zeit, als ich im
Zimmer des sterbenden Schwarz sa? und nur an den Pa?
dachte, der mich wieder zu einem Menschen machen
sollte [my emphases]? (Lissabon, p. 158).
   These temporary but recurrent returns to the actual plot ? marked clearly by the
resumption of the perspective of the first-person narrator of the framework ? constitute
one of the major differences between the applications of a framework in Obelisk and in
Lissabon. There are, however, also other noteworthy dissimilarities. Whereas the latter
work bears some structural resemblance to the Novelle,
9
 Obelisk is not an obvious
299
candidate for such a classification. Bodmer?s narrative does, for example, not present a
single, unusual but possible event, which is one of the key characteristics of the Novelle.
Lissabon, however, comprises exactly one such incident in the shape of the Ich-
Erz?hler?s encounter and conversation with Schwarz. This chance meeting ? the
?fairytale motif?
10
 ? between the two emigrants presumably saves the lives of both the
Ich-Erz?hler and his wife, and can only be viewed as ?eine sich ereignete unerh?rte
Begebenheit?; another quality which, aside from the framework-structure, characterizes
the Novelle.
11
 The centrality of the passport should equally not be overlooked. This
document, Wagener notes, ?works like a magic cloak in this case. When [Schwarz]
waves his passport and walks out of the French internment camp, it almost seems as if
he were protected by superhuman forces?.
12
 The passport does, however, play a much
more important role than this single incident suggests. It is, in fact, the very essence of
the novel as it provides Schwarz ? as well as his predecessors and successors ? with an
identity and a chance to survive. Equally, it is the passport which enables Schwarz to
return to Germany and be reunited with his wife. It is, however, also this document
which binds the Ich-Erz?hler to listen to Schwarz?s account, as this is the only way by
which he can obtain it. Within the context of the Novelle genre, the passport can thus be
perceived as constituting the story?s ?falcon?.
13
  Although the character, Schwarz, presents himself by this name, he admits that this is
not his real identity. Schwarz and Robert Ross in Schatten have, in fact, both inherited a
name and passport from another long-deceased refugee.
14
  As Schwarz reveals, the
passport has passed through the hands of several emigrants ? aiding and surviving them
all. Remarque uses this chain of anonymous victims to emphasize that the case of
Schwarz is not unique. Hence, although the reader is basically presented with the
experiences of a single individual, the history of the passport implies the existence ? and
300
indeed continued existence ? of many similar sufferers. The continuity is emphasized at
the end of the novel where the much desired document is passed on to yet another
emigrant. The Ich-Erz?hler explains:
Nach dem Kriege ging ich nach Europa zur?ck. Es
machte einige Schwierigkeiten, meine Identit?t zu
etablieren ? denn zur selben Zeit gab es Hunderte von
Herrenmenschen in Deutschland, die die ihre zu verlieren
suchten. Den Pa? der beiden Schwarz schenkte ich einem
Russen, der ?ber die Grenze geflohen war ? eine neue
Welle von Emigranten hatte begonnen, sich zu formen.
Wei? Gott, wo er inzwischen geblieben ist! (Lissabon, p.
310).
  An almost identical, although more blunt, critic of post-war German society is found in
Schatten: ?Ich war nicht mehr der einzige mit einem falschen Namen. Es gab jetzt viele
Hunderte, die rechtzeitig ihre P?sse umgetauscht hatten und eine Emigration von
M?rdern bildeten? (Schatten, p. 493). The closing exclamation from Lissabon, cited
above, is purposely manipulative. It seeks to stimulate the reader?s curiosity and
encourage consideration as to the possible story of this latest bearer of the Schwarz-
passport. At the conclusion of the novel, the exile experience may thus have ended for
the Ich-Erz?hler, but Remarque is careful to remind his reader that this does not bring to
a close the issue of forced emigration or what could appropriately be termed
schwarzexistieren.
  In the course of Lissabon, the current Schwarz depicts his exile experience to the Ich-
Erz?hler and, in return, grants his attentive listener two tickets for a ship to America in
addition to two passports ? one of which is the Schwarz-passport. Schwarz?s narrative,
which is reported through direct speech and thus, in itself, resembles a first-person
narrative, constitutes the framed story within the framework-structure. However, viewed
in the context of the novel as a whole, Schwarz?s story is, of course, filtered through and
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thus essentially superseded by the perspective of the framework?s anonymous Ich-
Erz?hler.
The interweaving of Schwarz?s story and the direct voice of the narrator of the
framework can, at times, cause momentary uncertainty as to who is speaking; the two
men do, after all, both relate their individual tales in the first-person. Remarque does,
however, use a number of methods to assist the reader in distinguishing the voices of
the two characters. Lengthier passages of narrative by either of the men do, for instance,
often conclude with a requested response from the other man. This indicates to the
reader that the narrative voice is about to switch. The following extract exemplifies this:
Schwarz describes his reluctance to have a physical fight with his brother-in-law, a
dedicated Nazi. At the end, he asks for the Ich-Erz?hler?s opinion on the matter and
thereby warns the reader that a shift of narrative voice is about to occur:
Es ist eine merkw?rdige Sache mit der k?rperlichen
?berlegenheit. Sie ist die primitivste, die es gibt, und hat
nichts mit Mut und M?nnlichkeit zu tun. [?] Jeder wei?,
da? wirklicher Mut anderswo beginnt, und da? das
Muskelpaket, das herausfordert, da wahrscheinlich elend
versagen w?rde ? trotzdem suchen wir nach lahmen
Erkl?rungen und ?berfl?ssigen Entschuldigungen und
f?hlen uns j?mmerlich, wenn wir ablehnen, zum Kr?ppel
geschlagen zu werden. Ist das nicht so?  [my emphasis]
(Lissabon, p. 164).
  The closing question immediately draws the reader?s attention from Schwarz?s story to
the actual plot of the two emigrants? conversation in Lisbon. Following Schwarz?s
question, the reader thus automatically expects the succeeding sentence to represent the
voice of his listener. The switch in perspective can occur without confusion.
Throughout Lissabon, shifts in the perspective are announced indirectly by use of this
technique. Hence, the following non-rhetorical questions and requests for a response all
302
conclude longer statements by Schwarz: ?Kennen Sie M?nster??; ?Sie kennen das??;
?Oder glauben Sie nicht??; Verstehen Sie das denn nicht??; ?Sie denken wahrscheinlich,
ich rede mystischen Unsinn?; ?Waren Sie in Marseille?? (Lissabon, pp. 35, 98, 155, 156,
198, 259).
  Schwarz?s story is essentially about the reunion with his wife and their joint escape
from National Socialism. Their flight requires constant geographical mobility, and
Schwarz?s story therefore includes only few named characters, such as, for instance,
Helen?s brother, Georg J?rgens. A vast majority of the other characters, however, are
people they encounter only fleetingly on their journey. As in Liebe Deinen N?chsten
and Zeit zu leben, these characters are subsequently referred to not by name, but
according to the roles they fulfil, or by striking traits in their appearance or behaviour.
15
As in the previous works, the omission of names again serves to pinpoint the loneliness
and isolation experienced by the novel?s protagonists, in this case, as a result of being in
exile.
  It is not only the peripheral characters of Schwarz?s account who figure anonymously.
In fact, even the identity of the main character ? Schwarz? own person ? remains
somewhat unaccounted for. Disguised by the fake name of Schwarz, he reveals only
that his first name is Josef (not Georg, as Franz Baumer claims)
16
 and that Osnabr?ck is
his hometown. Helen additionally implies that Schwarz used to be an editor by
profession, but aside from this limited information, Schwarz provides no details about
his life or person prior to fleeing Germany.
  This front of secrecy is not unique to Schwarz, but characterizes Remarque?s
emigrants in general. It becomes especially noticeable when viewed against the First
World War novels which are prolific in information and reflections of the time prior to
the war. The lack of similar attention to the past in the exile novels serves to accentuate
303
the refugees? forced abolition of their former identities. Although Remarque?s First
World War soldiers are also stripped of their individuality, they are valued in their
masses, if only for canon fodder. The refugees, however, are universally unwanted and
face hostility, banishment, imprisonment or even execution if transported back to
German territory. As a result, the persecuted are forced to suppress their real identities
and essentially obliterate their personal history in their struggle for self-preservation.
Perhaps for this reason, perhaps because his real identity is insignificant to the context,
Schwarz never mentions directly his actual name: ??Ich hei?e Schwarz?, sagte er. ?Es
ist nicht mein richtiger Name; er ist der, der auf meinem Pa? steht. Aber ich habe mich
an ihn gew?hnt, und er wird f?r heute Nacht gen?gen?? (Lissabon, p. 13). Indirectly,
Schwarz nevertheless discloses his real name through the information he gives about his
wife. Despite pressure from her family, Helen has kept her husband?s surname, so when
Schwarz seeks her in an internment camp for women and asks for ?Helen Baumann?, he
simultaneously reveals his own family name (Lissabon, pp. 204, 207). The disclosure of
the name of Baumann is nevertheless paradoxical, when taking into account that
Schwarz?s story is truly voiced through the Ich-Erz?hler, because at the end of the
novel, the latter claims to have forgotten Schwarz?s real name: ?Ich fuhr sogar einmal
nach Osnabr?ck und fragte nach ihm, obschon ich seinen wirklichen Namen vergessen
hatte? (Lissabon, pp. 310-11). The discrepancy might be accidental; it certainly does not
appear to serve a particular purpose. At most, the forgetfulness of the Ich-Erz?hler
serves to stress Schwarz?s ordinariness and the fact that it could have been anybody
falling victim to unfortunate historical circumstances.
  The anonymity of Schwarz is more complete than those of, for instance, Ravic in Arc
de Triomphe or 509 in Funke Leben. Whereas the latter two eventually resume their real
identities at the end of the respective novels, Schwarz also rejects his fake identity and
304
becomes truly anonymous: ?Schwarz hatte den Ausweis eines Anmeldeb?ros f?r die
Fremdenlegion bei sich; er brauchte nur die Grenze zu ?berqueren und in der Kaserne
meinen Pa? wegzuwerfen. Die Legion interessierte sich nicht f?r die Vergangenheit?
(Lissabon, p. 307). In the reader/ character relationship, Schwarz likewise poses as a
much more anonymous individual than both Ravic and 509 whom the reader
accompanies and observes over a certain period of time. This impact of time should not
be underestimated. Schwarz?s story admittedly covers three years of his life in exile, but
as his narrative is regularly interrupted, the reader is never allowed to forget that the
actual acquaintance with Schwarz remains brief, lasting less than twenty-four hours.
The novel?s title is, of course, the chief reminder of this fact. For both the Ich-Erz?hler
and the reader, the encounter with Schwarz is ephemeral, and the anonymity shrouding
Schwarz?s character subsequently seems much more impenetrable than in the cases of
Remarque?s other protagonists. Resulting from the shortness of the encounter and the
fake identity of Schwarz, the reader is confronted with the story of a refugee who,
despite relating in considerable detail his experience of forced emigration, remains a
stranger. Schwarz?s character thereby assumes the same representative quality that
generally typifies Remarque?s protagonists in the Hauptwerk, a quality which the author
achieves through different techniques from novel to novel. In Lissabon, this is realized
through Schwarz?s impersonality. Summed up, Taylor comments on this issue:
?[Remarque] is expert at capturing the mood of that desperate situation and in telling the
story of many people by concentrating on the fate of a few?.
17
 The problems Schwarz
faces ? the anxiety, the helplessness, the loss of identity, the dehumanization and the
involuntary separation from his loved one ? therefore become descriptive not only of
Schwarz?s personal exile existence, but of refugee life in general. It is thus no surprise
that similar experiences and emotional strains are also depicted in other exile fiction,
305
such as Anna Segher?s Transit, Hans Habe?s Drei ?ber die Grenze, Lion
Feuchtwanger?s Exil as well as in the autobiographical refugee accounts by Alfred
D?blin, Carl Zuckmayer and Stefan Zweig.
  The representative role of Schwarz?s character is additionally communicated through
his continued juxtaposition with the framework?s Ich-Erz?hler. A pattern of similarity
quickly emerges between the tribulations they have both had to face as emigrants. These
common aspects of their time in exile are communicated, indirectly, through Schwarz?s
reiterated enquiry into his listener?s familiarity with the problems he depicts: ?Verstehen
Sie??; ?Kennen Sie das auch??; ?Verstehen Sie, was ich meine?? and ?Sie kennen das??
(Lissabon, pp. 13, 16, 76, 98). The Ich-Erz?hler?s answers are exclusively affirmative
and Schwarz?s questions gradually transform into statements of assumption: ?Es war die
rasende letzte Ungeduld, die Sie wahrscheinlich auch kennen?; ?Sie kennen das ja
selbst?; ?Es war eine der Stunden, die Sie kennen?; ?Sie kennen ja den Weg der
Emigranten?; ?Sie kennen ihn sicher auch? (Lissabon, pp. 130-31, 178, 180, 187, 235).
Hence, although the novel predominantly focuses on Schwarz?s character, it also
conveys a great deal about the Ich-Erz?hler. Seghers applies the same technique to
engage the reader in his/ her role as the emigrant listener: ?Sie kennen das alles genau so
gut wie ich selbst.?; ?Ich brauche Ihnen nicht zu erkl?ren, da? dieses Gef?hl uns trog?;
?Sie kennen ja selbst das unbesetzte Frankreich aus dem Herbst 1940?.
18
  The Ich-Erz?hler functions as the actual narrator in Lissabon, but he takes a stance
equally anonymous to that of Schwarz. In fact, whereas the latter reveals his true name
(although unintentionally), the Ich-Erz?hler does not offer even a pseudonymous
name.
19
 This indistinctiveness of both the framework-narrator and Schwarz is
consciously upheld. Remarque thereby creates an image of two seemingly random
emigrants who are not acquainted and whose individual paths have thus far remained
306
uncrossed. Yet, as noted above, their exile experiences have been marked by similar
strains which suggest that the emotional and physical sufferings endured by the two
emigrants are common amongst refugees.
  The Ich-Erz?hler accepts the fact that he has to address his fellow refugee by the fake
name of Schwarz, and the latter ? lacking even a pseudonym by which to address his
listener ? resigns to calling the Ich-Erz?hler ?Herr?: ?Wir gingen weiter zum Hafen
hinunter. ?Herr?, sagte er nach einiger Zeit. ?Wer sind wir? [?]??; ?Was geschieht
damit, Herr??(Lissabon, pp. 138, 156).  Neither the Ich-Erz?hler nor Schwarz enquires
about the other man?s real identity or background. In all probability, neither would
expect a truthful answer anyway. More likely, however, their mutual lack of interest
also reflects the fact that such personal information is without real import to either
party. The Ich-Erz?hler has no interest in Schwarz?s story, but listens because he needs
the two travel tickets promised by Schwarz in return. The identity of the Ich-Erz?hler is
likewise irrelevant to Schwarz. Doubting the reliability of his own biased stance to his
deceased wife, Helen, he wishes to preserve a truthful memory of her by storing it in the
mind of an uninvolved and, Schwarz presumes, impartial individual. The exact identity
of this individual is, however, without relevance to Schwarz?s objective, as he is not
looking to have a dialogue, but rather to deliver his autobiographical monologue to a
willing listener. Most random by-passers could have fulfilled Schwarz?s criterion, and
in his anonymity the Ich-Erz?hler does in fact, remain just such a random emigrant:
Ich war ein fremder Mensch, der f?r einen Nacht seinen
[Schwarzs] Weg kreuzte und vor dem er keine
Hemmungen zu haben brauchte. Eingeh?llt in den
anonymen Mantel eines fernen, toten Namens ? Schwarz
? begegnet er mir, und wenn er den Mantel abwarf, warf
er damit auch seine Pers?nlichkeit ab und verschwand
wieder in der anonymen Menge [?]? (Lissabon, p. 103).
307
In Lissabon, the narrative perspective alone testifies to the impossibility of Schwarz?s
aim. Presenting his story from a biased viewpoint ? intensified by his distress at Helen?s
death ? Schwarz is incapable of presenting an objective account of events for the Ich-
Erz?hler to store in his mind. The implied infidelities of his wife, for instance, he
simultaneously insinuates and yet shrouds in an act of emotional self-preservation. The
trustworthiness of the Ich-Erz?hler?s memory should equally be questioned. Firda
understands the role of the Ich-Erz?hler to be ?Remarque?s own objective commentator
[my emphasis]?, but this interpretation seems to reflect Schwarz?s assumption about his
listener, rather than reality.
20
  Hence, despite his presumed neutral stance in relation to
Schwarz?s account, the Ich-Erz?hler is restless and preoccupied with the tickets for
America. On several occasions, his thoughts turn to the ship in the harbour, whilst
outwardly resembling the attentive listener of Schwarz?s narrative: ??Wenn ich in
Amerika bin, werde ich gern dar?ber nachdenken?, f?gte ich hinzu, um ihn [Schwarz]
daran zu erinnern, da? er mir die Billetts versprochen hatte. [?] [I]ch h?tte nicht gern
diskutiert. Ich hatte keine Ruhe dazu. Unten lag das Schiff?; ?Ich war auch nerv?s, weil
ich das Schiff nicht mehr sah. Wer wu?te, ob es nicht nachts noch die Anker lichtete,
fr?her als angesagt war, wegen irgendeiner Warnung?; ?Das Orchester spielte
Tanzmusik; einen Tango, in dem kurze, ged?mpfte Hornst??e mich an die fernen
Sirenen eines abfahrenden Schiffes erinnerten. Nur noch ein paar Stunden, dachte ich,
bis zur D?mmerung, dann kann ich gehen. Ich f?hlte nach den Fahrscheinen in meiner
Tasche. Sie waren da?; ?Ich war so voll Aufruhr ?ber das Versprechen von Schwarz, mir
seinen Pa? zu geben, da? ich nicht h?rte, was er sagte. Ich dachte nur dar?ber nach, was
ich tun k?nnte, um auch f?r Ruth ein Visum zu bekommen? (Lissabon, pp. 12, 38, 73,
159).
308
 Although Schwarz?s story is constructed to resemble a first-person narrative, it is
essentially presented from the viewpoint of the Ich-Erz?hler of the framework.
However, the attention of the latter is clearly focussed on his and his wife?s safety, and,
as Wagener correctly points out with regards to the framework narrator, ?Schwarz?s fate
does not directly concern him [the Ich-Erz?hler]?.
21
 Subsequently, Schwarz?s story
becomes ?subject to falsification through the listener?s [the Ich-Erz?hler?s] mind?.
22
 The
concluding pages of the novel furthermore reveal that the Ich-Erz?hler has been
narrating from the post-war era; i.e. several years after his short encounter with Schwarz
in 1942. He even admits that his memory of Schwarz has submerged into ?einem
geisterhaften Rauch? (Lissabon, p. 309). Together, all of these elements cast doubt on
the reliability of the principal Ich-Erz?hler?s version of the other man?s story.
  Despite the fact that he holds only a blurred image of Schwarz, after the war the Ich-
Erz?hler believes he recognizes the former in a random by-passer in the streets of
Osnabr?ck: ?Auf dem Weg zur?ck zum Bahnhof glaubte ich, ihn [Schwarz] zu
erkennen. Ich lief ihm nach; aber es war ein verheirateter Postsekret?r, der mir erz?hlte,
da? er Jansen hie?e und drei Kinder habe? (Lissabon, p. 311). The Ich-Erz?hler?s
seemingly fallible memory in relation to Schwarz?s person might seem incompatible
with his otherwise detailed presentation of the other man?s exile experience. However,
this slight discrepancy is not the actual point of interest. The importance rather rests in
the ordinariness of the man whom the Ich-Erz?hler believes to be Schwarz. Neither his
name, profession nor family situation is striking, and the implication is that Schwarz ?
like Jansen ? ought to have been allowed to lead an ordinary life; work; be a family man
and a respectable member of civilized society. In other words, what the Ich-Erz?hler
and Remarque suggest is that Schwarz and the other emigrants ? ?[die] unz?hligen
einzelnen Herren Schwarz? (Lissabon, p. 104) ? were ordinary people who became
309
innocent victims as a result of circumstances outside their control. The details of
Schwarz?s account as presented to the reader by the Ich-Erz?hler might be slightly
different from the story related during that Lisbon night. However, drawing from his
own refugee experiences, the Ich-Erz?hler is nonetheless a reliable narrator, because he
can convey a realistic image of life in exile.
It is the emotional strain of continued social seclusion which makes Schwarz to return
to his German hometown ? risking captivity in doing so. However, the mentality he
encounters is foreign to him and he realizes that the Germany of his memories has
ceased to exist. Schwarz?s return therefore initially triggers an unanticipated sensation
in him: ?Ich f?hlte mich pl?tzlich einsamer als je zuvor au?erhalb Deutschlands?
(Lissabon, p. 34). Waiting for his wife in his former flat, Remarque communicates the
degree of Schwarz?s loneliness through repeated references to darkness and emptiness.
Nach einer Weile begann sich lautlos ein ungeheures
Gef?hl des Verlustes in mir auszubreiten. Es war nicht
schmerzhaft; es war eher wie eine D?mmerung, die weiter
und weiter kriecht und alles ?berschattet und leert, bis sie
selbst den Horizont verh?llt. Eine Schattenwaage
balancierte eine leere Vergangenheit gegen eine leere
Zukunft, und in der Mitte stand Helen, den
Schattenbalken der Waage auf ihren Schultern, und auch
sie schon verloren. Es war mir, als sei ich in der Mitte
meines Lebens; der n?chste Schritt w?rde die Waage
verschieben, sie w?rde langsam sinken, der Zukunft zu,
sich mehr und mehr mit Grau f?llen und nie wieder im
Gleichgewicht sein [my emphases] (Lissabon, pp. 104-
05).
The incorporation of a metaphorical set of scales, resting on the shoulders of his wife
and which the slightest movement might bring in irreversible unbalance, further
conveys the importance of this moment to Schwarz.
310
Darkness is, of course, also suggested in the very name of Schwarz. As with many of
Remarque?s other characters, Schwarz?s name is reflective of the role he fulfils in
Lissabon. The symbolic implication of the colour black, or darkness, was explored in
relation to the psychological impact of Lillian?s illness in Chapter Five. In Lissabon,
Schwarz?s situation is equally threatening to both his physical and emotional safety: He
has not only lost his nationality, his identity and his wife, but like Remarque?s previous
narrators, Schwarz also suffers under the inhuman treatment he receives as a refugee:
?Wir hatten P?sse. Wir waren Menschen bis September 1939. Wir waren Menschen bis
September? (Lissabon, pp. 153-54). The repetition adds local texture to the narrative,
but it also emphasizes Schwarz?s sensation of loss, not only of his homeland and former
life, but of his very status as a human being. It is this gloomy situation of the emigrants
which Remarque hints at in his choice of name for Schwarz?s character.
Taking the symbolic implication one step further, Schwarz?s name also alludes to his
role as a representative of the average refugee from Hitler?s regime. With a personal
history applicable in its degree of deprivation to the larger proportion of the emigrant
community, Remarque?s character, Schwarz, has purposely been given an indefinite
identity which is shrouded in a darkness also expressed in his fake name. Remarque
furthermore plays linguistically on Schwarz?s name in relation to his character?s illegal
existence. Schwarz explains, for instance: ?Ich bin schwarz ?ber die Grenze gekommen?
and ?[Ich] arbeitete nachts schwarz in einem Restaurant [my emphases]? (Lissabon, pp.
59, 261). Remarque?s emigrant not only crosses the border and works ?schwarz?;
without the right to reside anywhere, he basically exists ?schwarz?. The name thus
illustrates the very essence of Schwarz?s, and indeed any other illegal emigrant?s,
refugee life.
311
During the five years Schwarz has spent in exile, he has had no contact with his wife.
He therefore associates her with his former existence, the life he led prior to fleeing.
When she decides to join her husband in exile, Schwarz regains a focal point by which
he begins to plan their joint escape to America. However, although their love is
rekindled, Schwarz cannot conceal his hurt at Helen?s lack of complete commitment.
She does, for instance, not follow her husband into exile in order to remain close to him,
but ? like Lillian in Der Himmel ? in order to find life and evade the knowledge of her
terminal illness. Unlike Lillian, however, Helen is aware of her own flight from her
condition: ?Ersticke mich nicht mit deiner Sorge und deiner Angst vor Verantwortung!
Ich bin nicht deinetwegen weggegangen. Begreife das doch! Nicht deinetwegen!
Meinetwegen! [?] Auch wenn es nicht so aussieht! Ich wollte weg! Da? du kamst, war
ein Zufall. Versteh das doch! Sicherheit ist nicht immer alles? (Lissabon, p. 175). It
remains undeterminable whether Schwarz and his wife have grown apart during their
separation, or whether Schwarz?s years of absence have caused his memory to apply a
deceptively rosy tint to an already malfunctioning relationship. There is, though, some
indication that the latter plays a certain role. Schwarz does, for instance, recognize that
the uncertainty of the situation intensifies his emotions. Hence, he suggests that had
history developed differently, they would simply have become: ?[e]in mittelm??iges,
langweiliges Paar, das in Osnabr?ck ein mittelm??iges, langweiliges Leben gef?hrt
h?tte mit mittelm??igen Gef?hlen [my emphases]? (Lissabon, p, 241).
Schwarz gradually comes to suspect that Helen is unfaithful to him, but he turns a
blind eye. Rather than confronting his wife, he directs his attention at their escape and ?
like B?umer in Im Westen ? temporarily represses his emotions. This is conveyed, for
instance, through his reaction to the discovery amongst Helen?s belongings of a bundle
of letters, presumably from another man: ?Ich dachte nichts und legte sie in ihren
312
Koffer. [?] Ich sah auf die nassen D?cher und dachte nichts [my emphases]? (Lissabon,
pp. 287-88). Again, Remarque utilizes repetition as a narrative tool. In this case, it
serves to emphasize his character?s detached state of mind. Schwarz?s reaction is
therefore not dissimilar to that of B?umer and many of Remarque?s other protagonists
who generally acknowledge that the emotional strain of dealing with stressful issues
consumes unnecessary energy and potentially becomes a hindrance to survival. In Arc
de Triomphe, for instance, Ravic says about his own situation:
Er lebte, das war genug. Es lag ihm nichts daran in einer
Zeit, wo alles schwankte, etwas aufzubauen, das in kurzer
Zeit wieder zusammenst?rzen mu?te. Es war besser, zu
treiben, als Kraft zu verschwenden, sie war das einzige,
was unersetzbar war. ?berstehen war alles [?]. Eine
Lawine war nicht aufzuhalten, wenn sie im Rollen war ?
wer es versuchte, kam darunter. Besser abzuwarten und
sp?ter die Versch?tteten auszugraben (Arc de Triomphe,
p. 55).
Schwarz?s reaction must thus be viewed in the light of his specific situation. After all,
Helen?s dishonesty is dwarfed by the much more serious problems they face as refugees
of Hitler?s regime.
23
 In Schatten, Remarque takes up this theme again, as Ross in
relative safety begins to deal with issues he had thus far suppressed.
Ich wu?te pl?tzlich, da? ich jetzt, wo ich an dieser
fremden K?ste angelangt war, die Gefahr noch nicht
?berstanden hatte, da? sie im Gegenteil erst richtig
begann. Nicht die ?u?ere, sondern die von innen. Ich war
so lange mit dem einfachen ?berleben besch?ftigt
gewesen, und darin hatte gleichzeitig mein Schutz
gelegen (Schatten, pp. 18-19).
  Lissabon explores how people experience and react to situations of crises. In fact,
similarly to B?umer, Ravic, Graeber, 509, Lillian, Ross and all of Remarque?s other
313
major characters, Schwarz and the Ich-Erz?hler of the framework are victims of
external circumstances. As illegal emigrants, they face severe dangers and, like Steiner
in Liebe Deinen N?chsten, Schwarz even risks his life when returning to Germany in
seek of his wife. A convincing depiction of the exile experience therefore requires the
author to convey the emotional stress and fear arising from the constant threat of being
caught. However, as explored in relation to Funke Leben, language has limitations and
is especially lacking when attempting to verbalize and communicate degrees of emotion
or physical sensation. The analysis of the concentration camp novel showed that
Remarque consequently allows the reader to witness the torture of an inmate only
audibly, as this offers greater insight into the pain and fear inflicted than any visual
description or explanation through similes. Although Remarque does not apply the
exact same technique in Lissabon to convey the emotional strain experienced by his
refugee characters, his approach roots in the same notion of overcoming the
shortcomings of language. Hence, the level of stress they experience is conveyed
through descriptions of involuntary, physical reactions: ?Es war der K?rper, nicht der
Kopf, der reagierte; es war der Magen, der zu Stein, der Mund, der eine Raspel wurde?;
?Ich f?hlte, da? mein Hemd klebte?; ?Meine Kehle war trocken?; ?Das Herz krampfte
sich mir zusammen?; ?[T]rotzdem sp?rte ich die Enge im Halse, w?hrend zur selben Zeit
der Schwei? von den Achselh?hlen am K?rper heruntersicherte?; ?Mein Mitfahrer sa?
dort, noch unruhiger als vorher. Er schwitzte und rieb sich H?nde und Gesicht mit
einem nassen Taschentuch?; ?Der Schwei? brach mir aus?; ?Ich sp?rte jetzt den Schwei?
unter meinem Hemd auf dem R?cken?(Lissabon, pp. 31, 32, 46, 70, 98, 127, 211, 294).
In Schatten, when recalling past experiences from a concentration camp, Ross explains
in similar terms: ?Trotzdem f?hlte ich, wie jedesmal der Schwei? von meinen
Achselh?hlen herunterrann, und ich st?hnte wie jedesmal, hilflos und dem Erbrechen
314
nahe? (Schatten, p. 187). The reader can relate to these reactions and thereby gain
understanding of both Schwarz?s and Ross?s emotional state; they are, in fact, probably
more effective in communicating the degree of fear and anxiety than most combinations
of adverbs and adjectives relating directly to these emotions.
  In isolation, some of the physical reactions described above could mistakably be read
as hyperbolic phrases, serving merely to create drama. However, Schwarz (and
Remarque) makes a point of defending his choice of wording and preventing accusation
of exaggerating:
Als ich noch ein Mensch war, der das Recht hatte, seine
F??e irgendwohin zu stellen, habe ich oft gezweifelt,
wenn ich las, wie die Schriftsteller Angst und Schreck
beschrieben ? da? dem Opfer das Herz stillstehe, da? er
wie erstarrt dast?nde, da? es ihm eisig den R?cken
herunter und durch die Adern liefe, da? ihm der Schwei?
am ganzen K?rper ausbrache ?; ich hielt das f?r Klischees
und schlechten Stil, und es mag sein, da? er das ist; aber
eines ist es auch: es ist wahr. Ich habe das alles
empfunden, genau so, obschon ich fr?her, als ich noch
nichts davon wu?te, dar?ber gelacht habe (Lissabon, p.
43).
   Schwarz voices similar arguments a number of times: ?[S]o ist das wieder ein
Klischee, und es ist wahr und nicht wahr, aber trotzdem f?hlte ich es?; ?[D]a ist wieder
so ein Klischee, an das man erst glaubt, wenn man es erfahren hat? (Lissabon, pp. 59,
70). By stressing the literalness of the physical sensations he describes, Schwarz draws
further attention to the continued fear in which the emigrants are forced to live.
  Schwarz?s reference to the style of lowbrow authors should, of course, not be
overlooked. Without real import to the story, the specific mention of the writing
profession in the extract above serves purely the extra-textual purpose of defending
Remarque?s own narrative techniques. Throughout his writing career Remarque had
315
been criticized for his succinct and approachable narrative style which especially
German critics regarded as inferior and as an indicator of lacking literary merit. In
Lissabon, however, Remarque rejects these criticisms through the mouth of his
character Schwarz. In fact, as also Barker and Last suggest, the framework-structure
allows Remarque to disguise his authorial voice behind both Schwarz and the Ich-
Erz?hler,
24
 and still, simultaneously, to express his contempt with the unjust criticism
with which his novels have persistently been targeted. Despite this, Lissabon has been
condemned on a number of points. The Nazi character Georg J?rgens has been rejected
as archetypal: ?Helens Bruder selbst gleicht bis zum Verwechseln den Gestapoknechten
aus ?Liebe Deinen N?chsten? und ?Arc de Triomphe? [?]?.
25
  The portrayal of the National Socialist characters may come across as somewhat trite,
but only if one disregards the relationship between the contents and narrative
perspective of the work. As in the earlier novels of Liebe Deinen N?chsten, Zeit zu
leben and Funke Leben, the Nazis in Lissabon take pleasure in torturing their fellow
man. One of them is subsequently referred to as ?der L?chler? (Lissabon, pp. 276-81)
which, of course, is reminiscent of the Nazi in Liebe Deinen N?chsten who likewise
giggles (?kicherte?) at the prospect of inflicting pain to his victims (Liebe Deinen
N?chsten, p. 308).  Less archetypal Nazis would perhaps have been favourable.
However, it should be remembered that the descriptions are delivered from the
viewpoint of past targets of the regime?s brutality. The one dimensional portrayal thus
becomes justifiable and a mere reflection of the sadistic treatment the victims have
endured in the hands of the Nazis. Lissabon does, however, not only feature violent
individuals of the SS ? the traditional image of a Nazi. In fact, the wife of Schwarz?s
childhood friend, Rudolf Martens ? although not a member of the party ? is suggested
to be sympathizing with the regime. Martens explains:
316
?Ich kann dich nicht in meine Wohnung nehmen. Ich habe
geheiratet. Vor zwei Jahren. Du verstehst ? ? [?] ?Meine
Frau geh?rt nicht zur Partei?, sagte Martens hastig. ?Aber
wir haben nie ?ber einen Fall ? ? er blickte mich verwirrt
an ?gesprochen, wie diesen jetzt hier. Ich wei? nicht
genau, wie sie dar?ber denken w?rde? (Lissabon, pp. 51-
52).
  In addition to Martens? doubts about his wife?s degree of loyalty towards the regime,
Remarque then hints at the well known National Socialist promotion of the woman?s
role in the spheres of Kinder, K?che und Kirche. Applying the same alliteration whilst
distorting the familiar phrase, Martens mentions that his wife has been on the phone
discussing ?Kleider, Krieg und Kinder? (Lissabon, p. 63). Neither Schwarz nor Martens
appears to note the seemingly accidental assimilation of the Nazi slogan, but Remarque
does, of course, consciously play on the similarity as a means of conveying the wife?s
true sentiment towards National Socialism.
  Within the modern setting, in Lissabon and indeed in many of his other novels,
Remarque incorporates imagery rooted in stories from the Old Testament. With specific
reference to the America-boat, the Ich-Erz?hler of the framework in Lissabon speaks
for instance of ?eine Arche zur Zeit der Sintflut? (Lissabon, p. 5). The parallelization
with the biblical story of Noah?s Ark is developed further in the succeeding lines: ?Der
Berg Ararat war Amerika, und die Flut stieg t?glich. Sie hatte Deutschland und
?sterreich seit langem ?berschwemmt und stand tief in Polen und Prague [?]?
(Lissabon, p. 5). By juxtaposing the emigrants with Noah ? God?s chosen survivor or
indeed ?G?nstling?? the narrator expresses and encourages sympathy with the refugees.
National Socialism, on the other hand, is analogized with the destructive force of water
masses, a comparison which unambiguously conveys the narrator?s anti-Nazi position.
317
  A related imagery is found later in the novel, where Remarque on a number of
occasions refers to another tale from the Old Testament: ?Wir leben wie die Juden beim
Auszug aus ?gypten. Hinter uns die deutsche Armee und die Gestapo, zu beiden Seiten
das Meer der franz?sischen und spanischen Polizei, und vor uns das Gelobte Land
Portugal mit dem Hafen von Lissabon zum noch gelobteren Lande Amerika?; ?Es war
wie ein Traum; wir durchschritten ihn [den dichtgedr?ngten Klumpen der Emigranten],
er teilte sich vor uns wie das Rote Meer vor den israelitischen Emigranten des Pharao?
(Lissabon, pp. 232, 263). Considering that anti-Semitism and the exodus constitute two
of the main issues generally associated with Hitler?s reign, the biblical story of the
Jewish people?s escape from Egyptian oppression seems an appropriate choice for an
analogy.
  The journey through the parted, Red Sea under the guidance of Moses is especially apt
in the context of Lissabon. As with the tale of Noah?s Ark, this part of the story revolves
around the element of water, and although the sea does not pose the actual threat to
Moses and his group, it nonetheless represents a considerable danger which they must
defy. The Bible sides with the fleeing people, and Remarque?s reason for choosing this
story from the Old Testament for comparison with his Twentieth Century emigrants is
thus relatively self-explanatory. In fact, in Schatten, Ross applies a similar comparison:
?Ich lie? mich durch die anonyme Stadt treiben, deren heller Rauch zum Himmel stieg.
Eine d?stere Feuers?ule bei Nacht und eine Wolkens?ule bei Tag ? hatte nicht Gott auf
?hnliche Weise dem ersten Volk der Emigranten in der W?ste den Weg gewiesen?
(Schatten, p. 18). Although Ross is physically safe in America, he is still an emigrant
and continues to struggle with his involuntary exile and past experiences. The use of
biblical imagery has a particular effect. The crime of the National Socialists?
victimization, not only of the Jewish people, but also of political opponents,
318
homosexuals and people with disabilities, is emphasized by the religious pictures, which
suggests injustice in the eyes of an intrinsic law transcending that of humans.
  Both of the biblical stories mentioned above revolve around the element of water. This
natural element plays a central role in Lissabon too in its literal form as well as
figuratively. The Atlantic Ocean constitutes the chief physical obstacle which the
emigrants must defeat in order to reach the ?Gelobte Land?, America. As already noted,
the Ich-Erz?hler is preoccupied with the thought of boarding the America-ship, and
Remarque further stresses this by incorporating a great number of maritime-related
imagery into the language of his emigrants. The following statements are partly voiced
by the Ich-Erz?hler, partly by Schwarz. At the time of the two men?s conversation, the
latter admittedly no longer desires to escape Europe. However, he is depicting a period
of his life during which his chief aim was to reach America, and his language can
therefore be viewed as reflecting his then state of mind: ?Ich nahm an, er sei auch einer
der vielen Gestrandeten?; ?Wissen war ein bi?chen Schaum, der ?ber eine Woge tanzt?;
?Sie schienen mir jetzt H?fen der Humanit?t zu sein?; ?Wir sind wie Schiffbr?chige?;
?Man hat andere Ufer erreicht?; ?[Die Schreie der Zeitungsrufer] ?bert?nten die Motoren
wie M?venschreie das Rauschen des Meeres? [my emphases] (Lissabon, pp. 7, 99, 155,
155, 174). This, of course, also calls to mind the English title of the earlier exile novel,
Liebe Deinen N?chsten, which was published as Flotsam. The opening page of
Lissabon furthermore contains an effective metaphor in which water is used for
comparison. The National Socialist regime is likened to a flood in which Europe is
gradually becoming submerged: ?[U]nd die Flut stieg t?glich. Sie hatte Deutschland und
?sterreich seit langem ?berschwemmt und stand tief in Polen und Prag [?]? (Lissabon,
p. 5). This figurative image consistently dominates the entire passage. Maritime
319
imagery thus constitutes an important tool in Remarque?s conveyance of the emigrants?
desperation to attain tickets for America.
  As with Remarque?s novels in general, Lissabon received a mixed response from
reviewers. In Aufbau, for instance, Hans Habe praises ?die hohe erz?hlerische Kunst
Remarques?;
26
 the Abendpost notes that Remarque has also covered the topic of exile in
previous novels, but adds: ?Vielleicht aber noch nie so technisch vollkommen wie in der
?Nacht von Lissabon??.
27
 The New York Times Book Review is likewise relatively
positive: ?[I]t may not quite be a great novel, but it is surely one of the most absorbing
and eloquent narratives of our period?.
28
 However, five days later, another review in The
New York Times expresses less enthusiasm: ??The Night in Lisbon? lacks the
conventional virtues of well-individualized characters and of dramatic narrative?.
29
Finally, the New Statesman voices open disappointment: ?Before Mr. Remarque?s book
can claim more than the lending-library fame which its American best-seller status
entitles it to, it must say something more than we know. This it does not. Tired writing
and unproductive philosophical exchanges are a further objection?.
30
  Above, the analysis speaks against the negative criticism of the New Statesman. There
are admittedly elements of Remarque?s previous novels detectable in Lissabon also, in
relation to both form and content, and one reviewer in fact suggests that Remarque
merely follows his ?Erfolgsrezept?.
31
 Nevertheless, it is the first time that Remarque has
used the Novelle-form and explored how a traditional framework-structure works in
conjunction with other narrative tools. It could be argued that his unusual structure adds
a complexity to the work that sets it apart from the Trivialliteratur-genre.
32
 Lissabon
may appear to be just another novel focussing on a few individual victims, but
Remarque has not previously used the framework as a means of placing the story of his
protagonists into a wider context and thereby conveying their representative role.
320
   It is perhaps surprising that the German critics were more enthusiastic about Lissabon
than their American colleagues. This may, of course, be partly related to the stance of
the individual reviewer. Hans Habe, for example, had not only authored a novel on the
exile topic, entitled Drei ?ber die Grenze, in Ascona, he owned the neighbouring
property to Remarque?s and was indeed a trusted friend of his.
33
 The answer may,
however, also lie in the changes which German literature underwent during the late
1950s and the 1960s. These years saw gradual shifts in the attitude to the topic of the
Second World War, as a new generation of Germans grew up and began to question the
role of their parents under National Socialist rule.
  In literature, following an initial numbness after the war, authors such as Heinrich
B?ll, G?nter Grass, Siegfried Lenz and Martin Walser emerged and forced Germany to
begin to deal with its past. As claimed in relation to Zeit zu leben and Funke Leben, the
expressly hostile reception of Remarque?s early post-war novels was influenced by the
fact that the author was presenting issues which Germany was not yet ready to
acknowledge. Remarque was thus to a certain extent ahead of his time and more daring,
perhaps, than his contemporaries, when he produced Zeit zu leben and Funke Leben.
The overall gentler tone of German literary critics in relation to Lissabon certainly
seems to confirm that Remarque explored issues, not only in Im Westen, but in fact in
most of his novels, which were too topical for their time of publication. The response
was classification and rejection of Remarque as a lowbrow author, a defensive reaction
which caused Remarque?s reputation widespread damage and encouraged his continued
exclusion from academic discourse.
321
                       Notes to Die Nacht von Lissabon
1. Tilman Westphalen, ?Ein Tornister voll mit Blei?, p. 499. See also K?ster?s detailed
analysis of Remarque?s supposed work process for his final novel. Marc Wilhelm
K?ster, ?Die Manuskriptlage zu Remarques Schatten im Paradies?.
2. See Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royle?s chapter on the performative in
Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory, pp. 215-221; Jonathan Culler also has
a chapter on performative language in his Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction,
pp. 94-107.
3. Anna Seghers, Transit ([1944] Darmstadt etc.: Luchterhand, 1981), p. 36.
4. Schreckenberger, ??Durchkommen ist alles??, p. 35.
5. Seghers, Transit, p. 6.
6. There are other similarities: ?Although The Night in Lisbon is largely devoted to Josef
Schwarz?s story, it resembles Flotsam in that it reports the fate of two individuals, one
of whom manages to escape to America in the end. Moreover, the heroes of the two
novels, Josef Schwarz and Josef Steiner, have the same first name. Both men risk their
lives and return to Germany in order to see the wives they had left behind. Both
Steiner?s wife and Schwarz?s wife suffer from cancer. In both cases their illness is not
revealed until later in the novel?. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p.
101. These similarities are noted also in Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p.
117.
7. The framework-structure has generally been acknowledged by critics, but few
explore further its specific relationship to other formal aspects of Lissabon. Remarque?s
possible idea behind its application has remained unquestioned. The most elaborate
studies on the framework of Lissabon include: Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria
Remarque, p. 130; Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and Film Biography, p.
242; Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 103; Barker and Last, Erich
Maria Remarque, p. 113.
8. Seghers, Transit, pp. 9, 11, 39. Similar examples are found throughout the novel.
322
9. Murdoch discusses this is detail. Murdoch, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque, p.
141  See also Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 104; Sternburg, Als
w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 413.
10. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 104.
11. J. A. Cuddon, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory,
revised by C. E. Preston (England etc.: Penguin, 1999), pp. 600-601.
12. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 104.
13. Paul Heyse?s Falkentheorie is explained in Cuddon, The Penguin Dictionary of
Literary Terms and Literary Theory, p. 303.
14. The emigrant currently holding the Schwarz passport explains to his listener that his
real first name is identical to the one in the passport, Josef (Lissabon, p. 20). In
Schatten, Ross likewise appears to have inherited only the surname of the previous
passport holder. When encountering an acquaintance from Germany, Betty Stein, in
New York, she is unaware of the previous Ross?s death, but she immediately refers to
the Ich-Erz?hler as Robert (Schatten, p. 48).
15. The list of characters includes, for instance: ?ein schwitzender, dicker Mann?, ?ein
SS-Mann?, ?ein Chauffeur?, ?ein Zollbeamter?, ?ein barmherziger W?chter?, ?ein kleiner,
alter Spanier?, ?ein Apotheker?, ?eine bucklige junge Frau?, ?ein l?chelnder Mann in
Zivil? (Lissabon, pp. 33, 42, 108, 119, 182, 183, 194, 270, 276).
16. Baumer evidently confuses the Christian name of the character, Schwarz, and that of
Schwarz?s brother-in-law, Georg J?rgens. In the same sentence, Baumer further claims
that Lissabon brings to life ?die Atmosph?re der Emigrantencaf?s in Z?rich und Wien?.
Baumer, E. M. Remarque, p. 73. Schwarz is indeed in Z?rich for a short while. Vienna,
however, is barely mentioned in Schwarz?s tale. Considering that his narrative only
commences in the spring of 1939 ? a time at which Austria had been under Nazi
domination for about a year ? Schwarz only reluctantly journeys through Austria on his
way to Germany. ?Ich beschlo?, es ?ber ?sterreich zu tun. Die Grenze dort kannte ich
etwas, und sie war sicher nicht so scharf bewacht wie die deutsche. Warum sollten beide
?berhaupt scharf bewacht sein? Wer wollte schon hinein? Aber viele wollten
wahrscheinlich hinaus. [?] ?sterreich geh?rte damals seit einem Jahr zu Deutschland?
(Lissabon, pp. 28, 30). Baumer presumably mistakes the plot for that of Liebe Deinen
N?chsten which in part is set in the Austrian capital.
17. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque: A Literary and Film Biography, p. 244.
18. Seghers, Transit, pp. 6, 24, 25. Similar examples are found throughout the novel.
19. Taylor mistakenly believes the Ich-Erz?hler to be named Josef: ?Before he left,
Josef Baumann gave the exile-narrator Josef his passport and Helen?s passport which
enabled him and his wife Ruth to escape to America?. Taylor, Erich Maria Remarque:
A Literary and Film Biography, p. 244. Taylor in fact repeats the mistake in his article:
?Humor in the Novels of Erich Maria Remarque?, West Virginia University:
Philological Papers, 29 (1983), pp. 38-45 (p. 43). He states: ?Josef Baumann, a native
323
of Osnabr?ck, tells his story in Lisbon to the novel?s narrator, another exile named
Josef?. The novel does indeed mention a coincidental consistency in the Christian names
of two of the emigrants. This does, however, not relate to the Ich-Erz?hler and Schwarz,
but rather to the latter and the man from whom he inherited the passport. In the
following quotation, Schwarz tells the Ich-Erz?hler about his acquisition of the
passport: ??Er geh?rte einem ?sterreicher mit dem ich im Caf? de la Rose bekannt
geworden war. Der Mann starb und hinterlie? mir den Pa? und sein Geld.? [?] ?Sie
haben den Pa? ge?ndert?? fragte ich [Ich-Erz?hler of the framework]. ?Nur das Foto
und das Geburtsjahr. Schwarz war f?nfundzwanzig Jahre alter als ich. Unsere
Vornamen waren gleich?? (Lissabon, pp. 17-20).
20. Firda, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels, p. 248.
21. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 105.
22. Wagener, Understanding Erich Maria Remarque, p. 105.
23. The impact of the exile situation on the norms and priorities by which people exist is
likewise portrayed in the earlier novel of Liebe Deinen N?chsten. Attending court for
residing illegally in Switzerland, Kern?s revised view on life stands in clear contrast to
that of the judge. The latter suggests: ??Alles, was ich tun kann, ist f?r Sie eine Eingabe
zu machen an das Obergericht, da? Sie nur Haft bekommen und kein Gef?ngnis.?
?Danke vielmals?, sagte Kern. ?Aber das ist mir gleich. Darin habe ich keinen Ergeiz
mehr.? ?Das ist gar nicht gleich?, erkl?rte der Richter mit einem gewissen Eifer. ?Im
Gegenteil, es ist sogar sehr wichtig f?r die b?rgerlichen Ehrenrechte. Wenn Sie Haft
bekommen, gelten Sie nicht als vorbestraft, das wissen Sie vielleicht noch nicht!? Kern
blickte den ahnungslosen, gutm?tigen Menschen eine Weile an. ?B?rgerlichen
Ehrenrechte?, sagte er dann. ?Was soll ich damit? Ich habe ja nicht einmal die
einfachsten b?rgerlichen Rechte! Ich bin ein Schatten, ein Gespenst, ein b?rgerlicher
Toter. Was sollen mir da die Dinge, die Sie Ehrenrechte nennen?? (Liebe Deinen
N?chsten, p. 209).
24. Barker and Last, Erich Maria Remarque, p. 114.
25. Antkowiak, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk, p. 145.
26. Hans Habe, ?Der neue Roman von Remarque?, Aufbau, 25 January, 1963.
27. Stefanie Zweig, ?Wenn Wein nur nach Wein schmeckt: ?Die Nacht von Lissabon?
und die Lanze f?r das Mittelma??, Abendpost, 2 March, 1963.
28. Maxwell Geismar, ?Terror Marched With a Goose Step?, The New York Times Book
Review, The New York Times, Section 7, 22 March, 1964.
29. Orville Prescott, ?Books of the Times: Punishment for Being Innocent?, The New
York Times, 27 March, 1964.
30. ?Refugees?, New Statesman, 11 December, 1964.
31. Stefanie Zweig, ?Wenn Wein nur nach Wein schmeckt?.
324
32. Nusser, Trivialliteratur, p. 7.
33. Sternburg, Als w?re alles das letzte Mal, p. 428.
                                             Concluding remarks
  This study set out to illuminate the complexity of Remarque?s narrative strategies and,
hence, to refute the widespread and continued assumption that Remarque?s novels do
not constitute appropriate subjects for serious literary discourse and research. As a
means to achieve this objective, focus was placed on the formal qualities of the novels.
These were then considered against the topics of the novels so that it could be
established how successfully Remarque uses the form to guide the reader?s emotions
and views in a particular direction and thereby help to convey his message.
Although the preceding chapters have sought to illustrate Remarque?s general,
technical, narrative skills, priority was given to a single formal element ? the narrative
perspective. This limitation proved a necessity, as an examination of the formal
elements in general would have exceeded a study of this size by far. As argued in the
introductory chapter, the choice of the perspective was based on the notion that the
narrative point-of-view constitutes a key determiner for both the form and content of a
work. It was therefore an obvious choice of focus, when evaluating Remarque?s
authorial skills.  Notwithstanding, the interrelationship between the various formal
elements (the perspective included) and the contents made an analysis exclusively of the
point-of-view impossible. As a result, an examination of aspects other than the narrative
325
perspective proved necessary, not least because this, at times, illuminated the point that
the complexity of Remarque?s novels largely stem from the author?s understanding and
subsequent careful utilization of the interweaving of the various elements making up a
novel.
Adherence to the chronological order of the examined novels served to give insight
into whether Remarque?s narrative methods undergo a development from novel to
novel, or whether the style remains relatively static. It appears that certain techniques
are indeed recurrent throughout Remarque?s Hauptwerk, and these must consequently
be perceived as central to the Remarquean narrative approach. The novels are, for
instance, all constructed of relatively short, self-contained episodes, and the language
remains consistently accessible due to, what may be called, the journalistic style in
which the major works are usually ? although not always entirely ? written.
Furthermore, rather than elaborate descriptions, Remarque frequently exploits the
impact of succinct statements which in their simplicity achieve added effect. The
reference to the youth of some of the victims Remarque depicts in his novels offers one
significant example of this technique: ?Das ist Franz Kemmerich, neunzehneinhalb
Jahre alt, er will nicht sterben? (Im Westen, p. 29); ?Karel trug das rote Abzeichen des
politischen Gefangenen. Er war elf Jahre alt? (Funke Leben, p. 23). Referring to the age
in conjunction with the horrors these young individuals endure, Remarque excludes any
direct explanatory information, but rather allows the statements to speak for themselves.
As a result, the statements appear to be deceptively unbiased; yet in context they
become deliberately poignant. The approachable and concise format of Remarque?s
novels is thus not the result of a lack of authorial aptitude or linguistic ability, but rather
a narrative style to which Remarque consciously adheres. The author states this clearly
in two different interviews from the mid-1950s: ?Immer wieder k?rze ich meine
326
Manuskripte, schreibe so lange um, bis sie sich lesen, als ob sie gerade so
dahergeschrieben worden seien. Das Wesentliche meiner Art zu schreiben, ist, da? ich
alles, was der Leser wissen oder sich denken k?nnte, weglasse?.
1
 ??Man muss lange
suchen, bis man das Wort findet, das am besten und k?rzesten ausdr?ckt, was man dem
Leser klarmachen will?, sagt Remarque.?
2
 Indeed, more than a decade later, in an
interview on the occasion of his 70
th
 birthday in 1968, Remarque repeats this: ?Alles,
was ich beim schreiben getan habe, war, da? ich radikal alles strich, was der Leser
schon wissen konnte. Ich strich Kapitel, Abs?tze, S?tze, Worte, so lange, bis ich wu?te,
jetzt mu? ich aufh?ren, sonst geht alles kaputt?.
3
  Remarque?s play on words, often in relation to character-names, should equally not be
overlooked as a recurrent narrative trait of this author. Almost every novel reflects a
sense for detail and, at times, humour in the appropriate and insinuative names of
particular characters. These have been explored in the individual chapters and include,
for instance, Knobloch, Haake, Steinbrenner, 509 and, last but not least, Schwarz.
  As an analysis of the novels demonstrates, Remarque also uses imagery throughout his
work. This he applies to reflect, indirectly, the nature of the character voicing it or to
create a particular atmosphere. The imagery often extends to cover or even exceed
entire paragraphs. The gloomy air surrounding Robert and Pat?s first date in Drei
Kameraden remains especially memorable as an example of this and, as shown, serves
as an early indicator of Pat?s terminal illness. The extent of Remarque?s exploration of
the formal element of imagery is, however, perhaps best illustrated in Der Himmel
where ? closely intertwined with the thematic pattern of the legend of Orpheus and
Eurydice ? imagery constitutes an important tool in the conveyance of Lillian?s
changing perception of herself, her surroundings and her illness.
327
  Despite the recurrence with which the above narrative techniques appear in
Remarque?s novels, they are used with varied frequency and prevalence in the
individual works. Remarque does not merely follow what has been referred to as an
Erfolgsrezept in the writing of his books, but uses narrative tools selectively depending
on the topic and message of the works. The variation in the narrative perspective alone
disproves any claim as to the novels? uniformity. This study shows that Remarque
throughout his works employs both first- and third-person perspectives and additionally
experiments with different degrees of insight into the minds of his characters. In Obelisk
and Lissabon, the author furthermore explores the framework technique, but from the
perspective of one and two characters respectively. The combination of these different
viewpoints must, of course, also be considered in relation to the other formal elements.
The choice of tense, for instance, can have a decisive influence on the overall message,
as the conclusion of Kameraden shows. Remarque?s experimentation with perspective
and his subsequent gradual acquisition of experience with this formal element is evident
from work to work. The first novel written in the third-person, Liebe Deinen N?chsten,
does, for instance, not reflect the same confidence and skills as are found in the later
novels written from this perspective. There are, thus, not two novels in which Remarque
uses the element of perspective in exactly the same manner; rather in each work he
utilizes previous experience and attempts new effects by the combination with other
formal elements.
  For the casual reader the approachability of the works might disguise somewhat the
actual complexity of Remarque?s novels. In fact, only close reading reveals the actual
extent to which Remarque must have considered the different narrative techniques and
how best to join them in order to create a cohesive and harmonious whole. Studies of
Remarque subsequently generally voice surprise about the lack of interest and
328
acknowledgement given this author. This study has suggested a number of likely causes
for the continued neglect of Remarque?s work, but political reasons ? often based on
misunderstanding ? and envy of the author?s instant fame probably constitute the two
chief reasons. The general nature of German literary evaluation should, however, also
be taken into consideration as a possible cause. As mentioned in the Introduction,
Popstefanova expresses her disbelief at Remarque?s widespread omission from literary
encyclopaedia. Wagener, however, points to the difference between American and
German perception of literary value and sees Remarque?s exclusion, at least partly, as a
reflection of this. However, as so much authoritative material dealing with the
evaluation of modern German literature is still written by German scholars, foreign
scholars will often be faced with these for information and can, hence, easily overlook
the existence and value of Remarque?s work. The objective of this study has therefore
been to analyse the formal aspect of Remarque?s novels with the intention of providing
an unbiased argument against the still widespread classification of Remarque?s novels
as Trivialliteratur. It is hoped that it will provide new ammunition for advocates of
Remarque?s novels and thereby serve to encourage more widespread interest in his
works, including at an academic level.
329
                             Notes to Concluding remarks
1. Klaus Budzinski, ??Keine Zeit f?r Hitler-Film?. E. M. Remarque in M?nchen. Der
Schriftsteller macht Urlaub ? Aber dann??, Die Welt, 18 August, 1954.
2. Felicitas von Reznicek, ?Erich Maria Remarque: ?Schriftsteller ist man ? man kann es
nicht lernen?, (Z?rich), 1955, pp. 60-61, 102. The actual source is unknown. However,
it could be the Z?rcher Woche, as Reznicek wrote several articles on Remarque for this
paper.
3. L?tgenhorst, ?Emigrant zweier Welten?.
330
                                       Bibliography
Conventions of reference
Much of Remarque?s work and the studies on him are comprised in compilations. For
the sake of clarity, this bibliography therefore cites the individual authors and articles,
rather than referencing only the details of the overall compilations. Square brackets
indicate the original dates of publication.
Primary literature by Remarque
Remarque, Erich Maria, Arc de Triomphe ([1946] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
2001), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Das Tor des Hades: Nachwort von
Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 481-98
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Das gelobte Land?, in Das unbekannte Werk, II: Das gelobte
Land, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998)
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Das Rennen Vanderveldes?, in Das unbekannte Werk, IV:
Kurzprosa und Gedichte, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp.155-61; also published in Herbstfahrt eines
Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. by Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), pp. 46-52
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Das seltsame Schicksal des Johann Bartok?, in Der Feind:
Erz?hlungen, ed. Thomas F. Schneider ([1993] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
1998), pp. 54-61; also published in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und
Essays, ed. by Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), pp.
331
108-14; Das unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998), pp. 363-69
Remarque, Erich Maria, Das unbekannte Werk, V: Briefe und Tageb?cher, eds. Thomas
F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998). The
complete diaries are still unpublished, but can be accessed in the Erich Maria
Remarque-Friedenszentrum, Osnabr?ck
Remarque, Erich Maria, Der Feind: Erz?hlungen, ed. Thomas F. Schneider ([1993]
Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998); the short stories are also published in
Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. by Thomas F. Schneider
(Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), pp. 69-114; Das unbekannte Werk, IV:
Kurzprosa und Gedichte (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 324-69
Remarque, Erich Maria, Der Funke Leben, ([1952] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
2000), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Die W?rde des Menschen ist
unantastbar: Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 375-401
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Der Funke Leben (1952/ 53)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist: Texte
und Interviews 1929-1966, ed. Thomas F. Schneider ([1994] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998), pp. 94-95
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Der Funke Leben. Vorwort (1952)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist:
Texte und Interviews 1929-1966, ed. Thomas F. Schneider ([1994] Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 91-93
Remarque, Erich Maria, Der Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge ([1961] Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2000), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Von
Brescia nach Brescia: Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 319-36
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Der junge Lehrer: Plauderei eines Kriegslehrers?, in
Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. by Thomas F. Schneider
(Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), pp. 11-15
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Der letzte Akt: Drehbuch?, in Das unbekannte Werk, III: Die
letzte Station, Der letzte Akt, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen
(Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 11-151
Remarque, Erich Maria, Der schwarze Obelisk ([1956] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2002), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Unser Golgata: Nachwort
von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 395-414
Remarque, Erich Maria, Der Weg zur?ck ([1931] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
2001), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Kameradschaft zum Tode: Nachwort
von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 313-34
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Die andere Liebe?, in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten:
Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. by Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2001), pp. 132-47
332
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Die letzte Station?, in Das unbekannte Werk, III: Die letzte
Station, Der letzte Akt, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 153-257
Remarque, Erich Maria, Die Nacht von Lissabon ([1962] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2001), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Zur?ck kann man nie:
Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 313-30
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Die Traumbude?, in Das unbekannte Werk, I: Die Traumbude,
Gam, Station am Horizont, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen
(Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 19-173
Remarque, Erich Maria, Drei Kameraden ([1938] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
2001), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Der Orden der Erfolglosen: Nachwort
von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 384-98
Remarque, Erich Maria, Ein militanter Pazifist: Erz?hlungen ([1993] Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998)
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Gam?, in Das unbekannte Werk, I: Die Traumbude, Gam,
Station am Horizont, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 175-361
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Gr??ere und kleinere Ironien meines Lebens: Interview mit
sich selbst (1966)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist: Texte und Interviews 1929-1966, ed.
Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 138-43
Remarque, Erich Maria, Im Westen nichts Neues ([1929] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Ein Simplicissimus des 20.
Jahrhunderts: Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 199-219
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Karl Broeger in Fleury?, in Der Feind: Erz?hlungen, ed.
Thomas F. Schneider ([1993] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 26-33; also
published in Das unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 339-45; Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten:
Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. by Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2001), pp. 84-90
Remarque, Erich Maria, Liebe Deinen N?chsten ([1941] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 2001), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Ein Mensch ohne Pa? ist eine
Leiche auf Urlaub: Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 321-40
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Menschen nach dem Kriege: Hans Sochaczewers neuer
Roman?, in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. Thomas F.
Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), pp. 220-21
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Praktische Erziehungsarbeit in Deutschland nach dem Krieg?,
in Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. Thomas F. Schneider
(Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), pp. 226-42; also published in Das
333
unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch,
1998), pp.387-403; Ein militanter Pazifist: Texte und Interviews 1929-1966, ed.
Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 66-83
Remarque, Erich Maria, Schatten im Paradies ([1971] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Ein Tornister voll mit Blei:
Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp. 495-514
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Sei Wachsam! Zum Film Der letzte Akt (1956)?, in Ein
militanter Pazifist: Texte und Interviews 1929-1966, ed. Thomas F. Schneider (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 96-101; also published in Das unbekannte Werk,
IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp.404-09;
Herbstfahrt eines Phantasten: Erz?hlungen und Essays, ed. by Thomas F. Schneider
(Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), pp. 241-48
Remarque, Erich Maria, Station am Horizont, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman
Westphalen (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2000); also published in Das
unbekannte Werk, I: Die Traumbude, Gam, Station am Horizont (Cologne: Kiepenheuer
und Witsch, 1998), pp. 363-553
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Steppengewitter?, in Das unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa
und Gedichte, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 144-49
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Von den Freuden und M?hen des Jugendwehr?, in Das
unbekannte Werk, IV: Kurzprosa und Gedichte, eds. Thomas F. Schneider and Tilman
Westphalen (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 17-21
Remarque, Erich Maria, Zeit Zu Leben und Zeit Zu Sterben, ([1954] Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001), with an afterword by Tilman Westphalen, ?Wann wird
zum Mord, was man sonst Heldentum nennt? Nachwort von Tilman Westphalen?, pp.
401-20
Remarque, Erich Maria, ?Sag mir, da? du mich liebst??: Erich Maria Remarque ?
Marlene Dietrich, Zeugnisse einer Leidenschaft, eds. Werner Fuld and Thomas F.
Schneider (Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 2001)
334
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Secondary literature on Remarque
Antkowiak, Alfred, Erich Maria Remarque: Sein Leben und Werk ([1965] Berlin: Das
europ?ische Buch, 1983)
Antkowiak, Alfred, ?Zu einem neuen Roman von Erich Maria Remarque: ?Der
schwarze Obelisk??, no title, (Ost Berlin), 2 December, 1956.
Barker, Christine R., and R. W. Last, Erich Maria Remarque (London: Oswald Wolff,
1979)
Baumer, Franz, E. M. Remarque (Berlin: Colloquium, 1976)
Blaedel, Leif, ?Den tyske forl?gger om censuren af Remarque?, Information, 18
October 1954, no page
Blaedel, Leif, ?Nyt fra vestfronten: Remarques censor paa krigsstien igen?, Information,
11 December 1954.
Blaedel, Leif, ?Information afsl?rer: Remarque sat under censur i Tyskland?,
Information, 9 October 1954, 10
Brandi, Maria, and Nicole Lehmann, ??Unsere durchsiebten, durchl?cherten Seelen?:
Krieg und Kampf in sprachlichen Bildern bei Erich Maria Remarque, ?Im Westen
nichts Neues??, in Das deutsche Reich ist eine Republik: Beitr?ge zur Kommunikation
und Sprache der weimarer Zeit, ed. Horst D. Schlosser (Frankfurt am Main etc.: Peter
Lang, 2003), pp. 29-37
Budzinski, Klaus, ??Keine Zeit f?r Hitler-Film?. E. M. Remarque in M?nchen. Der
Schriftsteller macht Urlaub aber dann?.?, Die Welt, 18 August 1954
Campbell, Ian, ?Remarque in Exile: The Correspondence with Arthur Wheen (1933-
36)?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 11 (2001), 87-92
Chambers II, John W., and Thomas F. Schneider, ??Im Westen nichts Neues? und das
Bild des ?modernen? Krieg?, in Text+Kritik: Zeitschrift f?r Literatur: Erich Maria
Remarque, 149, ed. Heinz Ludwig Arnold (Munich: Richard Boorberg, 2001), pp. 8-18
338
Christoffersen, Rikke, ?Three Comrades - One Perspective: Contextualizing
Remarque?s Drei Kameraden with the Two Early War Novels?, Erich Maria Remarque
Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 15 (2005), 36-62
Czesko, Bohdan, ?Ich habe Remarque erschossen [1946]?, Erich Maria Remarque
Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 2 (1992), 33-34
Danklieb, Egon, ?Im Westen nichts Neues?, Signal: Bl?tter f?r junges Schaffen, 2
(1929), 23-25
De Leeuw, Howard M., ?Remarque's Use of Simile in Im Westen nichts Neues?, Erich
Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 4 (1994), 45-64
De Leeuw, Howard Michael, ?The Function of Simile in Remarque's Im Westen nichts
Neues? (Unpublished Master?s dissertation: University of Arizona, 1989)
Delpech, Jeanine, ?Remarque in Paris?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/Yearbook, 7
(1997), 110-16
Der Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenpreis der Stadt Osnabr?ck und seine Verleihung.
http://www.remarque.uos.de/richtl.htm . Last accessed 29 September 2006.
Der Fall Remarque. Im Westen nichts Neues: Eine Dokumentation, ed. B?rbel Schrader
(Leipzig: Reclam, 1992)
Devine, Kathleen, ?The Way Back: Alun Lewis and Remarque?, Anglia: Zeitschrift f?r
englische Philologie, 103 (1985), 320-35
D?rp, Peter, ?Goebbels' Kampf gegen Remarque: Eine Untersuchung ?ber die
Hintergr?nde des Hasses und der Agitation Goebbels' gegen den Roman Im Westen
nichts Neues von Erich Maria Remarque?, Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/ Yearbook,
1 (1991), 48-64
Eggebrecht, Axel, ?Gespr?ch mit Remarque (1929)?, Ein militanter Pazifist: Texte und
Interviews 1929-1966, ed. Thomas F. Schneider ([1994] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998), pp. 43-51
?Ein KZ-Roman wie er vom ?bel ist?, Heute und Morgen, 1952, 1134.
Elfriede Scholz, geb. Remark. Im Namen des deutschen Volkes. Dokumente einer
justitiellen Ermordung, eds. Claudia Glunz and Thomas F. Schneider (Osnabr?ck:
Rasch, 1997)
Erich Maria Remarque-Friedenszentrum, http://www.remarque.uos.de/intern.htm . Last
accessed 29 September 2006.
?Erich Maria Remarque, Violent Author...Quiet Man?, News Week, 1 April 1957, 108.
339
Feldmann, M., ?Gespr?ch mit E. M. Remarque (1946)?, Ein militanter Pazifist: Texte
und Interviews 1929-1966, ed. Thomas F. Schneider ([1994] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und
Witsch, 1998), pp. 84-90
Firda, Richard Arthur, All Quiet on the Western Front: Literary Analysis and Cultural
Context (New York: Twayne, 1993)
Firda, Richard Arthur, Erich Maria Remarque: A Thematic Analysis of His Novels
(New York: Peter Lang, 1988)
Firda, Richard Arthur, ?Young Erich Maria Remarque: Die Traumbude?, Monatshefte,
71 (1979), 49-55
Flau, Hermann, ?Remarque-Verfilmungen: Ungewollt politisch - politisch ungewollt?,
in Erich Maria Remarque 1898-1970, ed. Tilman Westphalen (Bramsche: Rasch, 1988),
pp. 113-36
Fotheringham, John, ?Looking Back at the Revolution: Toller's Eine Jugend in
Deutschland and Remarque's Der Weg zur?ck?, in Remarque Against War: Essays for
the Centenary of Erich Maria Remarque 1898-1970, eds. Brian Murdoch, Mark Ward
and Maggie Sargeant (Glasgow: Scottish Papers in Germanic Studies, 1998), pp. 98-118
Fuld, Werner, ?Ein Treffen mit alten Bekannten: Zur Vorgeschichte des Romans ?Der
Himmel kennt keine G?nstlinge??, in Text+Kritik: Zeitschrift f?r Literatur: Erich Maria
Remarque, 149, ed. Heinz Ludwig Arnold (Munich: Richard Boorberg, 2001), pp. 65-
68
Geismar, Maxwell, ?Terror Marched With a Goose Step?, The New York Times Book
Review, The New York Times, 22 March 1964, 7, no page
Gelder, Robert van, ?An Interview With Erich Maria Remarque: Who Outlines His
Rules for Handling Luck, Loneliness and Refugee Living. January 27, 1946?, in Writers
and Writing (New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, 1946), pp. 377-81
Glunz, Claudia, ??Eine harte Sache?. Zur Rezeption von Erich Maria Remarque?s Der
Funke Leben?, in ?Reue ist undeutsch?. Erich Maria Remarque?s Der Funke Leben und
das Konzentretionslager Buchenwald: Katalog zur Ausstellung, eds. Thomas F.
Schneider and Tilman Westphalen (Bramsche: Rasch, 1992), pp. 21-27.
Gordon, Haim, Heroism and Friendship in the Novels of Erich Maria Remarque (New
York etc.: Peter Lang, 2003)
H. H., ?Der Funke Leben. Ein neuer Roman von Remarque?, Westdeutsche Zeitung,
252, 30 October 1952, no page
Habe, Hans, ?Der neue Roman von Remarque?, Aufbau, 25 January 1963, no page
Hansen, Thorkild, ?Intet nyt fra ?stfronten: Erich Maria Remarques nye Roman om den
Anden Verdenskrig?, Information, 3 September 1954, no page
340
Hartung, G?nter, ?Gegenschriften zu Im Westen nichts Neues und Der Weg zur?ck?, in
Erich Maria Remarque: Leben, Werk und weltweite Wirkung, ed. Thomas F. Schneider
(Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1998), pp. 109-50
Hartung, G?nter, ?Zum Wahrheitsgehalt des Romans Im Westen nichts Neues?, Erich
Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 1 (1991), 5-17
Horak, Jan-Christopher, ?Ewig auf der Flucht: Die Romanverfilmung So Ends Our
Night?, in Erich Maria Remarque: Leben, Werk und weltweite Wirkung, ed. Thomas F.
Schneider (Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1998), pp. 235-49
Ilberg, Werner, ?Amerikas ?meistgekauftes? Buch: Bemerkungen zu Remarques ?Arc
de Triomphe??, T?gliche Rundschau (Berlin), 23 March 1949, no page.
Jeglin, Rainer, and Irmgard Pickerodt, ?Weiche Kerle in harter Schale: Zu Drei
Kameraden?, in Erich Maria Remarque: Leben, Werk und weltweite Wirkung, ed.
Thomas F. Schneider (Osnabr?ck: Rasch, 1998), pp. 216-34
Kirn, Richard, ?Ein Buch, das sein Autor ehrt?, Frankfurter neue Presse, 27 September
1952, 18
Kloiber, Harald, ?Struktur, Stil und Motivik in Remarques Im Westen nichts Neues?,
Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 4 (1994), 65-78
Kruse, Martina, ?10 Jahre Erich-Maria-Remarque-Gesellschaft E. V. in Osnabr?ck?,
Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 6 (1996), 57-73
Kuhn, K?bi, ?Meine Bestenliste?, Die Weltwoche, 19 September 2002, no page
K?ster, Marc Wilhelm, ?Die Manuskriptlage zu Remarque's ?Schatten im Paradies??,
Erich Maria Remarque Jahrbuch/ Yearbook, 5 (1995), 88-108
Liepman, Heinz, ?Remarque und die Deutschen: Ein Gespr?ch mit Erich Maria
Remarque (1962)?, in ein militanter Pazifist: Texte und Interviews 1929-1966, ed.
Thomas F. Schneider ([1994] Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 110-17
Littlejohns, Richard, ??Der Krieg hat uns f?r alles verdorben?: The Real Theme of Im
Westen nichts Neues?, Modern Languages: Journal of the Modern Language
Association, 70 (1989), 89-94
Luft, Friedrich, ?Das Profil: Gespr?ch mit Remarque (1963)?, in Ein militanter Pazifist:
Texte und Interviews 1929-1966, ed. Thomas F. Schneider ([1994] Cologne:
Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1998), pp. 118-33
L?tgenhorst, Manfred, ?Emigrant zweier Welten?, M?nchener Abendzeitung, 22 June
1968, 6
341
Man kann alten Dreck nicht vergraben; er f?ngt immer wieder an zu stinken: Materialen zu
einem Erich Maria Remarque-Projekt der Universit?t Osnabr?ck, Fachbereich Sprache
Literatur Medien, und zu Der Inszenierung Der Probeb?hne. Der Schwarze Obelisk: Eine
Textkollage, eds. Lothar Schwindt and Tilman Westphalen (Osnabr?ck: Department for
Language; Literature and Media in the University of Osnabr?ck, 1984)
?Mein Lieblingsbuch: Ein echter Klassiker?, Oranienburger Generalanzeiger, 7/8
December 2002, no page
Murdoch, Brian, ?All Quiet on the Trojan Front: Remarque, Homer and War as the
Targets of Literary Parody?, German Life and Letters, 28 (1989), 49-62
Murdoch, Brian, ?Hinter die Kulissen des Krieges sehen: Adrienne Thomas, Evadne
Price and E. M. Remarque?, Forum for Modern Language Studies, 28 (1992), 56-74
Murdoch, Brian, ?Narrative Strategies in Remarque?s ?Im Westen nichts Neues?, New
German Studies, 17 (1992), 175-201
Murdoch, Brian, The Novels of Erich Maria Remarque: Sparks of Life (Rochester etc.:
Camden House, 2006)
Murdoch, Brian, ?Paul B?umer's Diary: Im Westen nichts Neues, the War Diary and the
Fictionality of the War Novel?, in Remarque Against War: Essays for the Centenary of
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